ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  IN 
THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


WORKS  OF 


Julia  de  Wolf  Addison 

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ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  IN  THE 
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A Description 
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jrXAMPLES  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL 
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A Description  of  Mediaeval  Workmanship 
in  Several  of  the  Departments  of  Applied 
Art,  Together  with  Some  Account  of 
Special  Artisans  in  the  Early  Renaissance 


By  JULIA  DE  WOLF  ADDISON 

Author  of  “ The  Art  of  the  Pitti  Palace,”  “ The  Art  of 
the  National  Gallery,”  ” Classic  Myths  in  Art,”  etc. 


$Utt0tratr& 


L.  C.  PAGE  & COMPANY 

BOSTON  - - - MDCCCCVIH 


I 


Copyright , igo8 
By  L.  C.  Page  & Company 

(incorporated  ) 
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All  rights  reserved 


First  Impression,  June,  1908. 
Third  Impression,  April,  1910 


Colonial  IfJress 

Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  C.  H.  Simonds  & Co. 
Boston,  U.  S.  A. 


IHE  GETTY  GEWER 

iw 


INTRODUCTION 

The  very  general  and  keen  interest  in  the  revival  of 
arts  and  crafts  in  America  is  a sign  full  of  promise  and 
pleasure  to  those  who  are  working  among  the  so-called 
minor  arts.  One  reads  at  every  turn  how  greatly 
Ruskin  and  Morris  have  influenced  handicraft:  how 
much  these  men  and  their  co-workers  have  modified 
the  appearance  of  our  streets  and  houses,  our  materials, 
textiles,  utensils,  and  all  other  useful  things  in  which 
it  is  possible  to  shock  or  to  please  the  aesthetic  taste, 
without  otherwise  affecting  the  value  of  these  articles 
for  their  destined  purposes. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  look  into  the 
past,  particularly  to  those  centuries  known  as  the 
Middle  Ages,  in  which  the  handicrafts  flourished  in 
special  perfection,  and  to  see  for  ourselves  how  these 
crafts  were  pursued,  and  exactly  what  these  arts  really 
were.  Many  people  talk  learnedly  of  the  delightful 
revival  of  the  arts  and  crafts  without  having  a very 
definite  idea  of  the  original  processes  which  are  being 
restored  to  popular  favour.  William  Morris  himself, 
although  a great  modern  spirit,  and  reformer,  felt  the 


VI 


Introduction 


necessity  of  a basis  of  historic  knowledge  in  all  workers. 
“ 1 do  not  think/7  he  says,  “ that  any  man  but  one  of 
the  highest  genius  could  do  anything  in  these  days 
without  much  study  of  ancient  art,  and  even  he  would 
be  much  hindered  if  he  lacked  it.77  It  is  but  turning 
to  the  original  sources,  then,  to  examine  the  progress 
of  mediaeval  artistic  crafts,  and  those  sources  are  usually 
to  be  found  preserved  for  our  edification  in  enormous 
volumes  of  plates,  inaccessible  to  most  readers,  and 
seldom  with  the  kind  of  information  which  the  average 
person  would  enjoy.  There  are  very  few  books  dealing 
with  the  arts  and  crafts  of  the  olden  time,  which  are 
adapted  to  inform  those  who  have  no  intention  of 
practising  such  arts,  and  yet  who  wish  to  understand 
and  appreciate  the  examples  which  they  see  in  numerous 
museums  or  exhibitions,  and  in  travelling  abroad. 
There  are  many  of  the  arts  and  crafts  which  come 
under  the  daily  observation  of  the  tourist,  which  make 
no  impression  upon  him  and  have  no  message  for  him, 
simply  because  he  has  never  considered  the  subject  of 
their  origin  and  construction.  After  one  has  once 
studied  the  subject  of  historic  carving,  metal  work, 
embroidery,  tapestry,  or  illumination,  one  can  never 
fail  to  look  upon  these  things  with  intelligent  interest 
and  vastly  increased  pleasure. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  art  had 
been  regarded  as  a luxury  for  the  rich  dilettante,  — 
the  people  heard  little  of  it,  and  thought  less.  The 
utensils  and  furniture  of  the  middle  class  were  fashioned 


Introduction 


Vll 

only  with  a view  to  utility;  there  was  a popular  belief 
that  beautiful  things  were  expensive,  and  the  thrifty 
housekeeper  who  had  no  money  to  put  into  bric-a-brac 
never  thought  of  such  things  as  an  artistic  lamp  shade 
or  a well-coloured  sofa  cushion.  Decorative  art  is  well 
defined  by  Mr.  Russell  Sturgis:  “ Fine  art  applied  to 
the  making  beautiful  or  interesting  that  which  is  made 
for  utilitarian  purposes.” 

Many  people  have  an  impression  that  the  more  ornate 
an  article  is,  the  more  work  has  been  lavished  upon  it. 
There  never  was  a more  erroneous  idea.  The  diligent 
polish  in  order  to  secure  nice  plain  surfaces,  or  the 
neat  fitting  of  parts  together,  is  infinitely  more  difficult 
than  adding  a florid  casting  to  conceal  clumsy  work- 
manship. Of  course  certain  forms  of  elaboration 
involve  great  pains  and  labour;]  but  the  mere  fact  that 
a piece  of  work  is  decorated  does  not  show  that  it  has 
cost  any  more  in  time  and  execution  than  if  it  were 
plain,  — frequently  many  hours  have  been  saved  by  the 
device  of  covering  up  defects  with  cheap  ornament. 
How  often  one  finds  that  a simple  chair  with  a plain 
back  costs  more  than  one  which  is  apparently  elabo- 
rately carved ! The  reason  is,  that  the  plain  one  had  to 
be  made  out  of  a decent  piece  of  wood,  while  the  ornate 
one  was  turned  out  of  a poor  piece,  and  then  stamped 
with  a pattern  in  order  to  attract  the  attention  from 
the  inferior  material  of  which  it  was  composed.  The 
softer  and  poorer  the  wood,  the  deeper  it  was  possible  to 
stamp  it  at  a single  blow.  The  same  principle  applies  to 


Introduction 


viii 

much  work  in  metal.  Flimsy  bits  of  silverware  stamped 
with  cheap  designs  of  flowers  or  fruits  are  attached  to 
surfaces  badly  finished,  while  the  work  involved  in  mak- 
ing such  a piece  of  plate  with  a plain  surface  would 
increase  its  cost  three  or  four  times. 

A craft  may  easily  be  practised  without  art,  and  still 
serve  its  purpose;  the  alliance  of  the  two  is  a means  of 
giving  pleasure  as  well  as  serving  utility.  But  it  is  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  because  a design  is  artistic, 
its  technical  rendering  is  any  the  less  important.  Fre- 
quently curious  articles  are  palmed  off  on  us,  and 
designated  as  “ Arts  and  Crafts  ” ornaments,  in  which 
neither  art  nor  craft  plays  its  full  share.  Art  does  not 
consist  only  in  original,  unusual,  or  unfamiliar  designs; 
craft  does  not  mean  hammering  silver  so  that  the  hammer 
marks  shall  show;  the  best  art  is  that  which  produces 
designs  of  grace  and  appropriateness,  whether  they  are 
strikingly  new  or  not,  and  the  best  craftsman  is  so  skilful 
that  he  is  able  to  go  beyond  the  hammer  marks,  so 
to  speak,  and  to  produce  with  the  hammer  a surface  as 
smooth  as,  and  far  more  perfect  than,  that  produced  by 
an  emery  and  burnisher.  Some  people  think  that 
“ Arts  and  Crafts  ” means  a combination  which  allows 
of  poor  work  being  concealed  under  a mask  of  aesthetic 
effect.  Labour  should  not  go  forth  blindly  without  art, 
and  art  should  not  proceed  simply  for  the  attainment 
of  beauty  without  utility,  — in  other  words,  there  should 
be  an  alliance  between  labour  and  art. 

One  principle  for  which  craftsmen  should  stand  is 


Introduction 


IX 


a respect  for  their  own  tools:  a frank  recognition  of  the 
methods  and  implements  employed  in  constructing  any 
article.  If  the  article  in  question  is  a chair,  and  is 
really  put  together  by  means  of  sockets  and  pegs,  let 
these  constructive  necessities  appear,  and  do  not  try 
to  disguise  the  means  by  which  the  result  is  to  be 
attained.  Make  the  requisite  feature  a beauty  instead 
of  a disgrace. 

It  is  amusing  to  see  a New  England  farmer  build  a 
fence.  He  begins  with  good  cedar  posts,  — fine,  thick, 
solid  logs,  which  are  at  least  genuine,  and  handsome 
so  far  as  a cedar  post  is  capable  of  being  handsome. 
You  think,  “ Ah,  that  will  be  a good  unobjectionable 
fence.”  But,  behold,  as  soon  as  the  posts  are  in  position, 
he  carefully  lays  a flat  plank  vertically  in  front  of  each, 
so  that  the  passer-by  may  fancy  that  he  has  performed 
the  feat  of  making  a fence  of  flat  laths,  thus  going  out 
of  his  way  to  conceal  the  one  positive  and  good-looking 
feature  in  his  fence.  He  seems  to  have  some  furtive 
dread  of  admitting  that  he  has  used  the  real  article! 

A bolt  is  to  be  affixed  to  a modern  door.  Instead  of 
being  applied  with  a plate  of  iron  or  brass,  in  itself  a 
decorative  feature  on  a blank  space  like  that  of  the 
surface  of  a door,  the  carpenter  cuts  a piece  of  wood  out 
of  the  edge  of  the  door,  sinks  the  bolt  out  of  sight,  so 
that  nothing  shall  appear  to  view  but  a tiny  meaningless 
brass  handle,  and  considers  that  he  has  performed  a 
very  neat  job.  Compare  this  method  with  that  of  a 
mediaeval  locksmith,  and  the  result  with  his  great  iron 


X 


Introduction 


bolt,  and  if  you  can  not  appreciate  the  difference,  both 
in  principle  and  result,  I should  recommend  a course 
of  historic  art  study  until  you  are  convinced.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  not  necessary  to  carry  your  artistry  so 
far  that  you  build  a fence  of  nothing  but  cedar  logs 
touching  one  another,  or  that  you  cover  your  entire 
door  with  a meander  of  wrought  iron  which  culminates 
in  a small  bolt.  Enthusiastic  followers  of  the  Arts 
and  Crafts  movement  often  go  to  morbid  extremes. 
Recognition  of  material  and  method  does  not  connote 
a display  of  method  and  material  out  of  proportion  to 
the  demands  of  the  article  to  be  constructed.  As  in 
other  forms  of  culture,  balance  and  sanity  are  necessary, 
in  order  to  produce  a satisfactory  result. 

But  when  a craftsman  is  possessed  of  an  aesthetic 
instinct  and  faculty,  he  merits  the  congratulations  offered 
to  the  students  of  Birmingham  by  William  Morris, 
when  he  told  them  that  they  were  among  the  happiest 
people  in  all  civilization  --  “ persons  whose  necessary 
daily  work  is  inseparable  from  their  greatest  pleasure.” 

A mediaeval  artist  was  usually  a craftsman  as  well. 
He  was  not  content  with  furnishing  designs  alone,  and 
then  handing  them  over  to  men  whose  hands  were 
trained  to  their  execution,  but  he  took  his  own  designs 
and  carried  them  out.  Thus,  the  designer  adapted  his 
drawing  to  the  demands  of  his  material  and  the  crafts- 
man was  necessarily  in  sympathy  with  the  design  since 
it  was  his  own.  The  result  was  a harmony  of  intention 
and  execution  which  is  often  lacking  when  two  men  of 


Introduction 


xi 


differing  tastes  produce  one  object.  Liibke  sums  up 
the  talents  of  a mediaeval  artist  as  follows:  “ A painter 
could  produce  panels  with  coats  of  arms  for  the  military 
men  of  noble  birth,  and  devotional  panels  with  an 
image  of  a saint  or  a conventionalized  scene  from 
Scripture  for  that  noble’s  wife.  With  the  same  brush 
and  on  a larger  panel  he  could  produce  a larger  sacred 
picture  for  the  convent  round  the  corner,  and  with 
finer  pencil  and  more  delicate  touch  he  could  paint  the 
vellum  leaves  of  a missal;  ” and  so  on.  If  an  artistic 
earthenware  platter  was  to  be  made,  the  painter  turned 
to  his  potter’s  wheel  and  to  his  kiln.  If  a filigree 
coronet  was  wanted,  he  took  up  his  tools  for  metal  and 
jewelry  work. 

Redgrave  lays  down  an  excellent  maxim  for  general 
guidance  to  designers  in  arts  other  than  legitimate  picture 
making.  He  says:  “ The  picture  must  be  independent 
of  the  material,  the  thought  alone  should  govern  it; 
whereas  in  decoration  the  material  must  be  one  of  the 
suggestors  of  the  thought,  its  use  must  govern  the 
design.”  This  shows  the  difference  between  decoration 
and  pictorial  art. 

One  hears  a great  deal  of  the  “ conventional  ” in 
modern  art  talk.  Just  what  this  means,  few  people  who 
have  the  word  in  their  vocabularies  really  know.  As 
Professor  Moore  defined  it  once,  it  does  not  apply  to 
an  arbitrary  theoretical  system  at  all,  but  is  instinctive. 
It  means  obedience  to  the  limits  under  which  the 
artist  works,  The  really  greatest  art  craftsmen  of  all 


xil 


Introduction 


have  been  those  who  have  recognized  the  limitations 
of  the  material  which  they  employed.  Some  of  the 
cleverest  have  been  beguiled  by  the  fascination  of  over- 
coming obstacles,  into  trying  to  make  iron  do  the 
things  appropriate  only  to  wood,  or  to  force  cast  bronze 
into  the  similitude  of  a picture,  or  to  discount  all  the 
credit  due  to  a fine  piece  of  embroidery  by  trying  to 
make  it  appear  like  a painting.  But  these  are  the 
exotics;  they  are  the  craftsmen  who  have  been  led 
astray  by  a false  impulse,  who  respect  difficulty  more 
than  appropriateness,  war  rather  than  peace!  No 
elaborate  and  tortured  piece  of  Cellini’s  work  can 
compare  with  the  dignified  glory  of  the  Pala  d’Oro; 
Ghiberti’s  gates  in  Florence,  though  a marvellous  tour 
de  force , are  not  so  satisfying  as  the  great  corona  can- 
delabrum of  Hildesheim.  As  a rule,  we  shall  find  that 
mediaeval  craftsmen  were  better  artists  than  those  of 
the  Renaissance,  for  with  facility  in  the  use  of  material, 
comes  always  the  temptation  to  make  it  imitate  some 
other  material,  thus  losing  its  individuality  by  a con- 
tortion which  may  be  curious  and  interesting,  but  out 
of  place.  We  all  enjoy  seeing  acrobats  on  the  stage, 
but  it  would  be  painful  to  see  them  curling  in  and  out 
of  our  drawing-room  chairs. 

The  true  spirit  which  the  Arts  and  Crafts  is  trying  to 
inculcate  was  found  in  Florence  when  the  great  artists 
turned  their  attention  to  the  manipulation  of  objects 
of  daily  use,  Benvenuto  Cellini  being  willing  to  make 
salt-cellars,  and  Sansovino  to  work  on  inkstands,  and 


Introduction 


xiii 

Donatello  on  picture  frames,  while  Pollajuolo  made 
candlesticks.  The  more  our  leading  artists  realize  the 
need  of  their  attention  in  the  minor  arts,  the  more 
nearly  shall  we  attain  to  a genuine  alliance  between  the 
arts  and  the  crafts. 

To  sum  up  the  effect  of  this  harmony  between  art 
and  craft  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Abbe  Texier  has  said: 
“ In  those  days  art  and  manufactures  were  blended  and 
identified;  art  gained  by  this  affinity  great  practical 
facility,  and  manufacture  much  original  beauty.”  And 
then  the  value  to  the  artist  is  almost  incalculable.  To 
spend  one’s  life  in  getting  means  on  which  to  live  is  a 
waste  of  all  enjoyment.  To  use  one’s  fife  as  one  goes 
along  — to  live  every  day  with  pleasure  in  congenial 
occupation  — that  is  the  only  thing  worth  while.  The 
life  of  a craftsman  is  a constant  daily  fulfilment  of  the 
final  ideal  of  the  man  who  spends  all  his  time  and 
strength  in  acquiring  wealth  so  that  some  time  (and  he 
may  never  live  to  see  the  day)  he  may  be  able  to  control 
his  time  and  to  use  it  as  pleases  him.  There  is  stored 
up  capital  represented  in  the  life  of  a man  whose  work 
is  a recreation,  and  expressive  of  his  own  personality. 

In  a book  of  this  size  it  is  not  possible  to  treat  of  every 
art  or  craft  which  engaged  the  skill  of  the  mediaeval 
workers.  But  at  some  future  time  I hope  to  make  a 
separate  study  of  the  ceramics,  glass  in  its  various  forms, 
the  arts  of  engraving  and  printing,  and  some  of  the  many 
others  which  have  added  so  much  to  the  pleasure  and 
beauty  of  the  civilized  world. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction v 

I.  Gold  and  Silver . 1 

II.  Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 49 

III.  Enamel 91 

IV.  Other  Metals 109 

V.  Tapestry 154 

VI.  Embroideries 179 

VII.  Sculpture  in  Stone  (France  and  Italy)  . . . 213 

VIII.  Sculpture  in  Stone  (England  and  Germany)  . 242 

IX.  Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 262 

X.  Inlay  and  Mosaic 296 

XI.  Illumination  of  Books 326 

Bibliography 365 

Index 369 


t 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Examples  of  Ecclesiastical  Metal  Work  . . Frontispiece 

Crown  of  Charlemagne  ........  15 

Bernward’s  Cross  and  Candlesticks,  Hildesheim  facing  16 

Bernward’s  Chalice,  Hildesheim  ....  facing  18 

Corona  at  Hildesheim.  (Detail)  ....  facing  20 

Reliquary  at  Oryieto  ......  facing  32 

Apostle  Spoons 40 

Ivory  Knife  Handles,  with  Portraits  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth and  James  I.  Englis.  ......  42 

The  “ Milkmaid  Cup  ” 46 

Saxon  Brooch 50 

The  Tara  Brooch 51 

Shrine  of  the  Bell  of  St.  Patrick  . . . facing  52 

The  Treasure  of  Guerrazzar 64 

Hebrew  Ring 76 

Crystal  Flagons,  St.  Mark’s,  Venice  . . . facing  84 

Sardonyx  Cup,  11th  Century,  Venice  . . . facing  86 

German  Enamel,  13th  Century 93 

Enamelled  Gold  Book  Cover,  Siena  . . . facing  94 

Detail;  Shrine  of  the  Three  Kings,  Cologne  facing  98 

Finiguerra’s  Pax,  Florence facing  100 

Italian  Enamelled  Crozier,  14th  Century  . . .104 

Wrought  Iron  Hinge,  Frankfort 112 

Biscornette’s  Doors  at  Paris  ....  facing  114 
Wrought  Iron  from  the  Bargello,  Florence  . facing  116 

Moorish  Keys,  Seville 119 

Armour.  Showing  Mail  Developing  into  Plate  . . 123 

Damascened  Helmet  . 126 

Moorish  Sword  . 128 

Enamelled  Suit  of  Armour facing  130 

Brunelleschi’s  Competitive  Panel 137 

xvii 


xviii  List  of  Illustrations 


PAGE 

Ghiberti’s  Competitive  Panel 138 

Font  at  Hildesheim,  12th  Century  . . . facing  140 

Portrait  Statuette  of  Peter  Vischer  . . facing  142 

A Copper  “ Curfew  ” 148 

Sanctuary  Knocker,  Durham  Cathedral  . . facing  148 

Anglo  - Saxon  Crucifix  of  Lead 151 

Detail,  Bayeux  Tapestry facing  156 

Flemish  Tapestry,  “ The  Prodigal  Son  ” . . facing  166 

Tapestry,  Representing  Paris  in  the  15th  Century 

facing  176 

Embroidery  on  Canvas,  16th  Century,  South  Kensington 

Museum,  facing  190 

Detail  of  the  Syon  Cope facing  202 

Dalmatic  of  Charlemagne facing  204 

Embroidery,  15th  Century,  Cologne  . . . facing  208 

Carved  Capital  from  Ravenna  . 217 

Pulpit  of  Nicola  Pisano,  Pisa  ....  facing  226 

Tomb  of  the  Son  of  St.  Louis,  St.  Denis  . facing  232 

Carvings  around  Choir  Ambulatory,  Chartres  facing  238 
Grotesque  from  Oxford,  Popularly  Known  as  “ The 

Backbiter  ” 256 

The  “ Beverly  Minstrels  ” 257 

St.  Lorenz  Church,  Nuremberg,  Showing  Adam  Kraft’s 
Pyx,  and  the  Hanging  Medallion  by  Veit  Stoss 

facing  260 

Relief  by  Adam  Kraft 261 

Carved  Box  - wood  Pyx,  14th  Century  ....  263 

Miserere  Stall;  An  Artisan  at  Work  ....  271 

Miserere  Stall,  Ely;  Noah  and  the  Dove  . facing  272 
Miserere  Stall;  The  Fate  of  the  Ale  - wife  . . . 273 

Ivory  Tabernacle,  Ravenna facing  278 

The  Nativity;  Ivory  Carving 280 

Pastoral  Staff;  Ivory,  German,  12th  Century  . . 286 

Ivory  Mirror  Case;  Early  14th  Century  ....  289 

Ivory  Mirror  Case,  1340  290 

Chessman  from  Lewis 293 

Marble  Inlay  from  Lucca 297 

Detail  of  Pavement,  Baptistery,  Florence  . facing  298 
Detail  of  Pavement,  Siena;  “ Fortune,”  by  Pinturic- 

chio  facing  300 


List  of  Illustrations  xix 


PAGE 

Ambo  at  Ravello;  Specimen  of  Cosmati  Mosaic  facing  310 
Mosaic  from  Ravenna;  Theodora  and  Her  Suite,  16th 

Century facing  314 

Mosaic  in  Bas  - relief,  Naples  . . . . facing  324 

A Scribe  at  Work;  12th  Century  Manuscript  . . 334 

Detail  from  the  Durham  Book  ....  facing  344 
Ivy  Pattern,  from  a 14th  Century  French  Manuscript 

facing  346 

Mediaeval  Illumination 348 

Caricature  of  a Bishop  . 352 

Illumination  by  Gherart  David  of  Bruges,  1498;  St. 

Barbara facing  358 

Choral  Book,  Siena facing  360 

Detail  from  an  Italian  Choral  Book  . . facing  362 


I 


ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  IN 
THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


CHAPTER  I 

GOLD  AND  SILVER 

The  worker  in  metals  is  usually  called  a smith, 
whether  he  be  coppersmith  or  goldsmith.  The  term  is 
Saxon  in  origin,  and  is  derived  from  the  expression  “ he 
that  smiteth.”  Metal  was  usually  wrought  by  force  of 
blows,  except  where  the  process  of  casting  modified  this. 

Beaten  work  was  soldered  from  the  earliest  times. 
Egyptians  evidently  understood  the  use  of  solder,  for 
the  Hebrews  obtained  their  knowledge  of  such  things 
from  them,  and  in  Isaiah  xli.  7,  occurs  the  passage: 
“ So  the  carpenter  encouraged  the  goldsmith,  and  he 
that  smootheth  with  the  hammer  him  that  smote  the 
anvil,  saying,  1 It  is  ready  for  the  soldering/  ” In  the 
Bible  there  are  constant  references  to  such  arts  in 
metal  work  as  prevail  in  our  own  times:  “ Of  beaten 
work  made  he  the  candlesticks,”  Exodus.  In  the 
ornaments  of  the  tabernacle,  the  artificer  Bezaleel 
“ made  two  cherubims  of  gold  beaten  out  of  one  piece 
made  he  them.” 

An  account  of  gold  being  gathered  in  spite  of  vicis- 


2 Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


situdes  is  given  by  Pliny:  “ Among  the  Dardoe  the 
ants  are  as  large  as  Egyptian  wolves,  and  cat  coloured. 
The  Indians  gather  the  gold  dust  thrown  up  by  the 
ants,  when  they  are  sleeping  in  their  holes  in  the  Sum- 
mer; but  if  these  animals  wake,  they  pursue  the  Indians, 
and,  though  mounted  on  the  swiftest  camels,  overtake 
and  tear  them  to  pieces.” 

Another  legend  relates  to  the  blessed  St.  Patrick, 
through  whose  intercession  special  grace  is  supposed 
to  have  been  granted  to  all  smiths.  St.  Patrick  was  a 
slave  in  his  youth.  An  old  legend  tells  that  “one  time 
a wild  boar  came  rooting  in  the  field,  and  brought  up 
a lump  of  gold;  and  Patrick  brought  it  to  a tinker,  and 
the  tinker  said,  il  It  is  nothing  but  solder.  Give  it 
here  to  me.”  But  then  he  brought  it  to  a smith,  and 
the  smith  told  him  it  was  gold;  and  with  that  gold 
he  bought  his  freedom.  “ And  from  that  time,”  con- 
tinues the  story,  “ the  smiths  have  been  lucky,  taking 
money  every  day,  and  never  without  work,  but  as  for 
the  tinkers,  every  man’s  face  is  against  them!  ” 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  arts  and  crafts  were  generally 
protected  by  the  formation  of  guilds  and  fraternities. 
These  bodies  practically  exercised  the  right  of  patent 
over  their  professions,  and  infringements  could  be  more 
easily  dealt  with,  and  frauds  more  easily  exposed,  by 
means  of  concerted  effort  on  the  part  of  the  craftsmen. 
The  goldsmiths  and  silversmiths  were  thus  protected 
in  England  and  France,  and  in  most  of  the  leading 
European  art  centres.  The  test  of  pure  gold  was  made 


Gold  and  Silver 


3 


by  “ six  of  the  more  discreet  goldsmiths,"  who  went 
about  and  superintended  the  amount  of  alloy  to  be 
employed;  “ gold  of  the  standard  of  the  touch  of 
Paris  ” was  the  French  term  for  metal  of  the  required 
purity.  Any  goldsmith  using  imitation  stones  or  other- 
wise falsifying  in  his  profession  was  punished  “ by 
imprisonment  and  by  ransom  at  the  King's  pleasure.'' 
There  were  some  complaints  that  fraudulent  workers 
“ cover  tin  with  silver  so  subtilely  . . . that  the  same 
cannot  be  discovered  or  separated,  and  so  sell  tin  for 
fine  silver,  to  the  great  damage  and  deceipt  of  us." 
This  state  of  things  finally  led  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Hall  Mark,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  on  every  piece  of 
silver,  signifying  that  it  has  been  pronounced  pure  by 
the  appointed  authorities. 

The  goldsmiths  of  France  absorbed  several  other 
auxiliary  arts,  and  were  powerful  and  influential.  In 
state  processions  the  goldsmiths  had  the  first  place  of 
importance,  and  bore  the  royal  canopy  when  the  King 
himself  took  part  in  the  ceremony,  carrying  the  shrine 
of  St.  Genevieve  also,  when  it  was  taken  forth  in  great 
pageants. 

In  the  quaint  wording  of  the  period,  goldsmiths  were 
forbidden  to  gild  or  silver-plate  any  article  made  of 
copper  or  latten,  unless  they  left  some  part  of  the 
original  exposed,  “ at  the  foot  or  some  other  part,  . . . 
to  the  intent  that  a man  may  see  whereof  the  thing  is 
made  for  to  eschew  the  deceipt  aforesaid."  This  law 
was  enacted  in  1404. 


4 Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Many  of  the  great  art  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages 
were  established  in  connection  with  the  numerous 
monasteries  scattered  through  all  the  European  countries 
and  in  England.  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  rings  true 
concerning  the  proper  consecration  of  an  artist  : u If 

there  be  artists  in  the  monastery,  let  them  exercise 
their  crafts  with  all  humility  and  reverence,  provided 
the  abbot  shall  have  ordered  them.  But  if  any  of  them 
be  proud  of  the  skill  he  hath  in  his  craft,  because  he 
thereby  seemeth  to  gain  something  for  the  monastery, 
let  him  be  removed  from  it  and  not  exercise  it  again, 
unless,  after  humbling  himself,  the  abbot  shall  permit 
him.”  Craft  without  graft  was  the  keynote  of  mediaeval 
art. 

King  Alfred  had  a monastic  art  school  at  Athelney, 
in  which  he  had  collected  “ monks  of  all  kinds  from 
every  quarter.”  This  accounts  for  the  Greek  type  of 
work  turned  out  at  this  time,  and  very  likely  for  Italian 
influences  in  early  British  art.  The  king  was  active  in 
craft  work  himself,  for  Asser  tells  us  that  he  “ continued, 
during  his  frequent  wars,  to  teach  his  workers  in  gold 
and  artificers  of  all  kinds.” 

The  quaint  old  encyclopaedia  of  Bartholomew  Anglicus, 
called,  “ The  Properties  of  Things,”  defines  gold  and 
silver  in  an  original  way,  according  to  the  beliefs  of 
this  writer’s  day.  He  says  of  gold,  that  “ in  the  com- 
position there  is  more  sadness  of  brimstone  than  of  air 
and  moisture  of  quicksilver,  and  therefore  gold  is  more 
sad  and  heavy  than  silver.”  Of  silver  he  remarks, 


Gold  and  Silver 


5 


“ Though  silver  be  white  yet  it  maketh  black  lines  and 
strakes  in  the  body  that  is  scored  therewith/ 1 

Marco  Polo  says  that  in  the  province  of  Carazan  “ the 
rivers  yield  great  quantities  of  washed  gold,  and  also 
that  which  is  solid,  and  on  the  mountains  they  find  gold 
in  the  vein,  and  they  give  one  pound  of  gold  for  six  of 
silver.” 

Workers  in  gold  or  silver  usually  employ  one  of  two 
methods  — casting  or  beating,  combined  with  delicacy 
of  finish,  chasing,  and  polishing.  The  technical  processes 
are  interestingly  described  by  the  writers  of  the  old 
treatises  on  divers  arts.  In  the  earliest  of  these,  by  the 
monk  Theophilus,  in  the  eleventh  century,  we  have 
most  graphic  accounts  of  processes  very  similar  to  those 
now  in  use.  The  naive  monastic  instructor,  in  his 
preface,  exhorts  his  followers  to  honesty  and  zeal  in 
their  good  works.  “ Skilful  in  the  arts  let  no  one  glorify 
himself,”  say  Theophilus,  “ as  if  received  from  himself, 
and  not  from  elsewhere ; but  let  him  be  thankful  humbly 
in  the  Lord,  from  whom  all  things  are  received.”  He 
then  advises  the  craftsman  earnestly  to  study  the  book 
which  follows,  telling  him  of  the  riches  of  instruction 
therein  to  be  found;  “ you  will  there  find  out  whatever 
. . . Tuscany  knows  of  mosaic  work,  or  in  variety  of 
enamels,  whatever  Arabia  shows  forth  in  work  of  fusion, 
ductility  or  chasing,  whatever  Italy  ornaments  with 
gold  . . . whatever  France  loves  in  a costly  variety  of 
windows;  whatever  industrious  Germany  approves  in 
work  of  gold,  silver  or  copper,  and  iron,  of  woods  and 


6 Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


of  stones.”  No  wonder  the  authorities  are  lost  in  con- 
jecture as  to  the  native  place  of  the  versatile  'theoph- 
ilus!  After  promising  all  these  delightful  things,  the 
good  old  monk  continues,  “ Act  therefore,  well  inten- 
tioned  man,  . . . hasten  to  complete  with  all  the  study 
of  thy  mind,  those  things  which  are  still  wanting  among 
the  utensils  of  the  House  of  the  Lord,”  and  he  enumer- 
ates the  various  pieces  of  church  plate  in  use  in  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Directions  are  given  by  Theophilus  for  the  work- 
room, the  benches  at  which  the  smiths  are  to  sit,  and 
also  the  most  minute  technical  recipes  for  “ instruments 
for  sculping,”  for  scraping,  filing,  and  so  forth,  until  the 
workshop  should  be  fitted  with  all  necessary  tools.  In 
those  days,  artists  began  at  the  very  beginning.  There 
were  no  “ Windsor  and  Newtons,”  no  nice  makers  of 
dividers  and  T-squares,  to  whom  one  could  apply; 
all  implements  must  be  constructed  by  the  man  who 
contemplated  using  them. 

We  will  see  how  Theophilus  proceeds,  after  he  has  his 
tools  in  readiness,  to  construct  a chalice.  First,  he 
puts  the  silver  in  a crucible,  and  when  it  has  become 
fluid,  he  turns  it  into  a mould  in  which  there  is  wax 
(this  is  evidently  the  “cire  perdu  ” process  familiar  to 
casters  of  every  age),  and  then  he  says,  u If  by  some 
negligence  it  should  happen  that  the  melted  silver  be 
not  whole,  cast  it  again  until  it  is  whole.”  This  process 
of  casting  would  apply  equally  to  all  metals. 

Theophilus  instructs  his  craftsman  how  to  make  the 


Gold  and  Silver 


7 


handles  of  the  chalice  as  follows : “ Take  wax,  form 

handles  with  it,  and  grave  upon  them  dragons  or  animals 
or  birds,  or  leaves  — in  whatever  manner  you  may 
wish.  But  on  the  top  of  each  handle  place  a little  wax, 
round  like  a slender  candle,  half  a finger  in  length,  . . . 
this  wax  is  called  the  funnel.  . . . Then  take  some  clay 
and  cover  carefully  the  handle,  so  that  the  hollows  of 
the  sculpture  may  be  filled  up.  . . . Afterwards  place 
these  moulds  near  the  coals,  that  when  they  have  become 
warm  you  may  pour  out  the  wax.  Which  being  turned 
out,  melt  the  silver,  . . . and  cast  into  the  same  place 
whence  you  poured  out  the  wax.  And  when  they  have 
become  cold  remove  the  clay.”  The  solid  silver  handles 
are  found  inside,  one  hardly  need  say. 

In  casting  in  the  “ cire  perdu  ” process,  Benvenuto 
Cellini  warns  you  to  beware  lest  you  break  your  crucible 
— just  as  you’ve  got  your  silver  nicely  molten,”  he 
says,  “ and  are  pouring  it  into  the  mould,  crack  goes 
your  crucible,  and  all  your  work  and  time  and  pains 
are  lost!  ” He  advises  wrapping  it  in  stout  cloths. 

The  process  of  repousse  work  is  also  much  the  same 
to-day  as  it  has  always  been.  The  metal  is  mounted 
on  cement  and  the  design  partly  beaten  in  from  the 
outside;  then  the  cement  is  melted  out,  and  the  design 
treated  in  more  detail  from  the  inside.  Theophilus 
tells  us  how  to  prepare  a silver  vessel  to  be  beaten  with 
a design.  After  giving  a recipe  for  a sort  of  pitch,  he 
says,  “ Melt  this  composition  and  fill  the  vial  to  the 
top.  And  when  it  has  become  cold,  portray  . . . what- 


8 Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


ever  you  wish,  and  taking  a slender  ductile  instrument, 
and  a small  hammer,  design  that  which  you  have  por- 
trayed around  it  by  striking  lightly.”  This  process  is 
practically,  on  a larger  scale,  what  Cellini  describes  as 
that  of  “ minuterie.”  Cellini  praises  Caradosso  beyond 
all  others  in  this  work,  saying  “it  was  just  in  this 
very  getting  of  the  gold  so  equal  all  over,  that  I never 
knew  a man  to  beat  Caradosso!  ” He  tells  how  impor- 
tant this  equality  of  surface  is,  for  if,  in  the  working, 
the  gold  became  thicker  in  one  place  than  in  another, 
it  was  impossible  to  attain  a perfect  finish.  Cara- 
dosso made  first  a wax  model  of  the  object  which  he 
was  to  make;  this  he  cast  in  copper,  and  on  that  he 
laid  his  thin  gold,  beating  and  modelling  it  to  the 
form,  until  the  small  hollow  bas-relief  was  complete. 
The  work  was  done  with  wooden  and  steel  tools  of 
small  proportions,  sometimes  pressed  from  the  back 
and  sometimes  from  the  front;  “ ever  so  much  care  is 
necessary,”  writes  Cellini,  “ ...  to  prevent  the  gold 
from  splitting.”  After  the  model  was  brought  to  such 
a point  of  relief  as  was  suitable  for  the  design,  great 
care  had  to  be  exercised  in  extending  the  gold  further, 
to  fit  behind  heads  and  arms  in  special  relief.  In  those 
days  the  whole  film  of  gold  was  then  put  in  the  furnace, 
and  fired  until  the  gold  began  to  liquefy,  at  which  exact 
moment  it  was  necessary  to  remove  it.  Cellini  himself 
made  a medal  for  Girolamo  Maretta,  representing 
Hercules  and  the  Lion;  the  figures  were  in  such  high 
relief  that  they  only  touched  the  ground  at  a few  points. 


Gold  and  Silver 


9 


Cellini  reports  with  pride  that  Michelangelo  said  to 
him:  “ If  this  work  were  made  in  great,  whether  in 
marble  or  in  bronze,  and  fashioned  with  as  exquisite 
a design  as  this,  it  would  astonish  the  world;  and 
even  in  its  present  size  it  seems  to  me  so  beautiful 
that  I do  not  think  even  a goldsmith  of  the  ancient 
world  fashioned  aught  to  come  up  to  it!  ” Cellini 
says  that  these  words  “ stiffened  him  up,  ” and  gave 
him  much  increased  ambition.  He  describes  also  an 
Atlas  which  he  constructed  of  wrought  gold,  to  be 
placed  upon  a lapis  lazuli  background:  this  he  made 
in  extreme  relief,  using  tiny  tools,  “ working  right 
into  the  arms  and  legs,  and  making  all  alike  of  equal 
thickness.”  A cope-button  for  Pope  Clement  was  also 
quite  a tour  de  force ; as  he  said,  “ these  pieces  of  work 
are  often  harder  the  smaller  they  are.”  The  design 
showed  the  Almighty  seated  on  a great  diamond; 
around  him  there  were  “ a number  of  jolly  little  angels,” 
some  in  complete  relief.  He  describes  how  he  began 
with  a flat  sheet  of  gold,  and  worked  constantly  and 
conscientiously,  gradually  bossing  it  up,  until,  with 
one  tool  and  then  another,  he  finally  mastered  the 
material,  “ till  one  fine  day  God  the  Father  stood  forth 
in  the  round,  most  comely  to  behold.”  So  skilful  was 
Cellini  in  this  art  that  he  “ bossed  up  in  high  relief 
with  his  punches  some  fifteen  little  angels,  without  even 
having  to  solder  the  tiniest  rent!”  The  fastening  of 
the  clasp  was  decorated  with  “ little  snails  and  masks 
and  other  pleasing  trifles,”  which  suggest  to  us  that 


10  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Benvenuto  was  a true  son  of  the  Renaissance,  and  that 
his  design  did  not  equal  his  ability  as  a craftsman. 

Cellini’s  method  of  forming  a silver  vase  was  on  this 
wise.  The  original  plate  of  silver  had  to  be  red  hot, 
“ not  too  red,  for  then  it  would  crack,  — but  sufficient 
to  burn  certain  little  grains  thrown  on  to  it.”  It  was 
then  adjusted  to  the  stake,  and  struck  with  the  hammer, 
towards  the  centre,  until  by  degrees  it  began  to  take 
convex  form.  Then,  keeping  the  central  point  always 
in  view  by  means  of  compasses,  from  that  point  he 
struck  “ a series  of  concentric  circles  about  half  a finger 
apart  from  each  other,”  and  with  a hammer,  beginning 
at  the  centre,  struck  so  that  the  “ movement  of  the 
hammer  shall  be  in  the  form  of  a spiral,  and  follow  the 
concentric  circles.”  It  was  important  to  keep  the  form 
very  even  all  round.  Then  the  vase  had  to  be  hammered 
from  within,  “ till  it  was  equally  bellied  all  round,”  and 
after  that,  the  neck  was  formed  by  the  same  method. 
Then,  to  ornament  the  vase,  it  was  filled  with  pitch, 
and  the  design  traced  on  the  outside.  When  it  was 
necessary  to  beat  up  the  ornament  from  within,  the  vase 
was  cleared  out,  and  inverted  upon  the  point  of  a 
long  “ snarling-iron,”  fastened  in  an  anvil  stock,  and 
beaten  so  that  the  point  should  indent  from  within. 
The  vase  would  often  have  to  be  filled  with  pitch  and 
emptied  in  this  manner  several  times  in  the  course  of  its 
construction. 

Benvenuto  Cellini  was  one  of  the  greatest  art  per- 
sonalities of  all  time.  The  quaintness  of  the  aesthetic 


Gold  and  Silver 


11 


temperament  is  nowhere  found  better  epitomized  than 
in  his  life  and  writings.  But  as  a producer  of  artistic 
things,  he  is  a great  disappointment.  Too  versatile 
to  be  a supreme  specialist,  he  is  far  more  interesting 
as  a man  and  craftsman  than  as  a designer.  Technical 
skill  he  had  in  unique  abundance.  And  another  faculty, 
for  which  he  does  not  always  receive  due  credit,  is  his 
gift  for  imparting  his  knowledge.  His  Treatises,  con- 
taining valuable  information  as  to  methods  of  work, 
are  less  familiar  to  most  readers  than  his  fascinating 
biography.  These  Treatises,  or  directions  to  craftsmen, 
are  full  of  the  spice  and  charm  which  characterize  his 
other  work.  One  cannot  proceed  from  a consideration 
of  the  bolder  metal  work  to  a study  of  the  dainty  art 
of  the  goldsmith  without  a glance  at  Benvenuto  Cellini. 

The  introduction  to  the  Treatises  has  a naive  opening : 
il  What  first  prompted  me  to  write  was  the  knowledge 
of  how  fond  people  are  of  hearing  anything  new.”  This, 
and  other  reasons,  induced  him  to  “ write  about  those 
loveliest  secrets  and  wondrous  methods  of  the  great  art 
of  goldsmithing.” 

Francis  I.  indeed  thought  highly  of  Cellini.  Upon 
viewing  one  of  his  works,  his  Majesty  raised  his  hands, 
and  exclaimed  to  the  Mareschal  de  France,  “ I command 
you  to  give  the  first  good  fat  abbey  that  falls  vacant  to 
our  Benvenuto,  for  I do  not  want  my  kingdom  to  be 
deprived  of  his  like.” 

Benvenuto  describes  the  process  of  making  filigree 
work,  the  principle  of  which  is,  fine  wire  coiled  flat  so 


12  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


as  to  form  designs  with  an  interesting  and  varied  sur- 
face. Filigree  is  quite  common  still,  and  any  one  who 
has  walked  down  the  steep  street  of  the  Goldsmiths  in 
Genoa  is  familiar  with  most  of  its  modern  forms.  Cellini 
says:  “ Though  many  have  practised  the  art  without 
making  drawings  first,  because  the  material  in  which, 
they  worked  was  so  easily  handled  and  so  pliable,  yet 
those  who  made  their  drawings  first  did  the  best  work. 
Now  give  ear  to  the  way  the  art  is  pursued.”  He  then 
directs  that  the  craftsman  shall  have  ready  three  sizes 
of  wire,  and  some  little  gold  granules,  which  are  made 
by  cutting  the  short  lengths  of  wire,  and  then  subjecting 
them  to  fervent  heat  until  they  become  as  little  round 
beads.  He  then  explains  how  the  artificer  must  twist 
and  mould  the  delicate  wires,  and  tastily  apply  the 
little  granules,  so  as  to  make  a graceful  design,  usually 
of  some  floriate  form.  When  the  wire  flowers  and 
leaves  were  formed  satisfactorily,  a wash  of  gum  traga- 
canth  should  be  applied,  to  hold  them  in  place  until  the 
final  soldering.  The  solder  was  in  powdered  form,  and  it 
was  to  be  dusted  on  “ just  as  much  as  may  suffice,  . . . 
and  not  more,”  . . . this  amount  of  solder  could  only  be 
determined  by  the  experience  of  the  artist.  Then  came 
the  firing  of  the  finished  work  in  the  little  furnace; 
Benvenuto  is  here  quite  at  a loss  how  to  explain  himself : 
“ Too  much  heat  would  move  the  wires  you  have  woven 
out  of  place,”  he  says,  “ really  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
tell  it  properly  in  writing;  I could  explain  it  all  right 
by  word  of  mouth,  or  better  still,  show  you  how  it  is 


Gold  and  Silver 


13 


done,  — still,  come  along,  — we’ll  try  to  go  on  as  we 
started!  ” 

Sometimes  embossing  was  done  by  thin  sheets  of 
metal  being  pressed  on  to  a wooden  carving  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  so  that  the  result  would  be  a raised 
silver  pattern,  which,  when  filled  up  with  pitch  or  lead, 
would  pass  for  a sample  of  repousse  work.  I need  hardly 
say  that  a still  simpler  mechanical  form  of  pressing 
obtains  on  cheap  silver  to-day. 

So  much  for  the  mechanical  processes  of  treating  these 
metals.  We  will  now  examine  some  of  the  great  historic 
examples,  and  glance  at  the  lives  of  prominent  workers 
in  gold  and  silver  in  the  past. 

One  of  the  most  brilliant  times  for  the  production  of 
works  of  art  in  gold  and  silver,  was  when  Constantine, 
upon  becoming  Christian,  moved  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Byzantium.  Byzantine  ornament  lends  itself 
especially  to  such  work.  The  distinguishing  mark 
between  the  earlier  Greek  jewellers  and  the  Byzantine 
was,  that  the  former  considered  chiefly  line,  form,  and 
delicacy  of  workmanship,  while  the  latter  were  led  to 
expression  through  colour  and  texture,  and  not  fineness 
of  finish. 

The  Byzantine  emperors  loved  gold  in  a lavish  way 
and  on  a superb  scale.  They  were  not  content  with 
chaste  rings  and  necklets,  or  even  with  golden  crowns. 
The  royal  thrones  were  of  gold;  their  armour  was  deco- 
rated with  the  precious  metal,  and  their  chariots  enriched 
in  the  same  way.  Even  the  houses  of  the  rich  people 


14  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


were  more  endowed  with  precious  furnishings  than  most 
of  the  churches  of  other  nations,  and  every  family 
possessed  a massive  silver  table,  and  solid  vases  and 
plate. 

The  Emperor  Theophilus,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century,  was  a great  lover  of  the  arts.  His  palace  was 
built  after  the  Arabian  style,  and  he  had  skilful  mechan- 
ical experts  to  construct  a golden  tree  over  his  throne, 
on  the  branches  of  which  were  numerous  birds,  and 
two  golden  lions  at  the  foot.  These  birds  were  so 
arranged  by  clockwork,  that  they  could  be  made  to 
sing,  and  the  lions  also  joined  a roar  to  the  chorus! 

A great  designer  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  Alcuin,  the 
teacher  of  Charlemagne,  who  lived  from  735  to  804; 
he  superintended  the  building  of  many  fine  specimens 
of  church  plate.  The  school  of  Alcuin,  however,  was 
more  famous  for  illumination,  and  we  shall  speak  of  his 
work  at  more  length  when  we  come  to  deal  with  that 
subject. 

Another  distinguished  patron  of  art  was  the  Abbot 
Odo  of  Cluny,  who  had  originally  been  destined  for  a 
soldier;  but  he  was  visited  with  what  Maitland  describes 
as  “an  inveterate  headache,  which,  from  his  seventeenth 
to  his  nineteenth  year,  defied  all  medical  skill,”  so  he 
and  his  parents,  convinced  that  this  was  a manifestation 
of  the  disapproval  of  Heaven,  decided  to  devote  his  life 
to  religious  pursuits.  He  became  Abbot  of  Cluny  in 
the  year  927. 

Examples  of  ninth  century  goldsmithing  are  rare. 


Gold  and  Silver 


15 


Judging  from  the  few  specimens  existing,  the  crown  of 
Charlemagne,  and  the  beautiful  binding  of  the  Hours 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  one  would  be  inclined  to  think 


CROWN  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 


that  an  almost  barbaric  wealth  of  closely  set  jewels 
was  the  entire  standard  of  the  art  of  the  time,  and 
that  grace  of  form  or  contour  was  quite  secondary. 
Charlemagne  was  buried  seated  on  a golden  throne. 
The  tomb  was  rifled  about  the  twelfth  century,  and 


16  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


many  of  the  valuable  things  with  which  he  was  sur- 
rounded were  taken  away.  The  throne  was  denuded  of 
its  gold,  and  may  be  seen  to-day  in  the  Cathedral  at 
Aachen,  a simple  marble  chair  plain  and  dignified,  with 
the  copper  joints  showing  its  construction.  Many  of 
the  relics  of  Charlemagne  are  in  the  treasury  at  Aachen, 
among  other  interesting  items,  the  bones  of  the  right 
arm  of  the  Emperor  in  a golden  shrine  in  the  form  of  a 
hand  and  arm.  There  is  a thrill  in  contemplating  the 
remains  of  the  right  arm  of  Charlemagne  after  all  the 
centuries,  when  one  remembers  the  swords  and  sceptres 
which  have  been  wielded  by  that  mighty  member.  The 
reliquary  containing  the  right  arm  of  Charlemagne  is 
German  work  (of  course  later  than  the  opening  of  the 
tomb),  probably  between  1155  and  1190.  Frederic 
Barbarossa  and  his  ancestors  are  represented  on  its 
ornamentation. 

There  is  little  goldsmith’s  work  of  the  Norman  period 
in  Great  Britain,  for  that  was  a time  of  the  building 
of  large  structures,  and  probably  minor  arts  and  personal 
adornment  took  a secondary  place. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  display  of  mediaeval 
arts  and  crafts  which  may  be  seen  in  one  city  is  at 
Hildesheim:  the  special  richness  of  remains  of  the 
tenth  century  is  owing  to  the  life  and  example  of  an 
early  bishop  — Bernward  — who  ruled  the  See  from  993 
to  1022.  Before  he  was  made  bishop,  Bernward  was 
tutor  to  the  young  Emperor  Otto  III.  He  was  a student 
of  art  all  his  life,  and  a practical  craftsman,  working 


bernward’s  cross  and  candlesticks,  hildesheim 


Gold  and  Silver 


17 


largely  in  metals,  and  training  up  a Guild  of  followers 
in  the  Cathedral  School.  He  was  extremely  versatile: 
one  of  the  great  geniuses  of  history.  In  times  of  war 
he  was  Commander  in  Chief  of  Hildesheim;  he  was  a 
traveller,  having  made  pilgrimages  to  Rome  and  Paris, 
and  the  grave  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours.  This  wide  culture 
was  unusual  in  those  days;  it  is  quite  evident  from  his 
active  life  of  accomplishment  in  creative  art,  that 
good  Bishop  Bernward  was  not  to  be  numbered  among 
those  who  expected  the  end  of  the  world  to  occur  in  the 
year  1000  a.  d.  Of  his  works  to  be  seen  in  Hildesheim, 
there  are  splendid  examples.  The  Goldsmith’s  School 
under  his  direction  was  famous. 

He  was  created  bishop  in  992;  Taugmar  pays  him  a 
tribute,  saying:  “ He  was  an  excellent  penman,  a good 
painter,  and  as  a household  manager  was  unequalled.” 
Moreover,  he  “ excelled  in  the  mechanical  no  less  than 
in  the  liberal  arts.”  In  fact,  a visit  to  Hildesheim 
to-day  proves  that  to  this  man  who  lived  ten  centuries 
ago  is  due  the  fact  that  Hildesheim  is  the  most  artistic 
city  in  Germany  from  the  antiquarian’s  point  of  view. 
This  bishop  influenced  every  branch  of  art,  and  with  so 
vital  an  influence,  that  his  See  city  is  still  full  of  his 
works  and  personality.  He  was  not  only  a practical 
worker  in  the  arts  and  crafts,  but  he  was  also  a collector, 
forming  quite  a museum  for  the  further  instruction  of 
the  students  who  came  in  touch  with  him.  He  decorated 
the  walls  of  his  cathedral;  the  great  candelabrum,  or 
corona,  which  circles  above  the  central  aisle  of  the 


18  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


cathedral,  was  his  own  design,  and  the  work  of  his 
followers;  and  the  paschal  column  in  the  cathedral  was 
from  his  workshop,  wrought  as  delightfully  as  would 
be  possible  in  any  age,  and  yet  executed  nearly  a thou- 
sand years  ago.  No  bishop  ever  deserved  sainthood 
more,  or  made  a more  practical  contribution  to  the 
Church.  Pope  Celestine  III.  canonized  him  in  1194. 

Bernward  came  of  a noble  family.  His  figure  may  be 
seen  — as  near  an  approach  to  a portrait  of  this  great 
worker  as  we  have  — among  the  bas-reliefs  on  the 
beautiful  choir-screen  in  St.  Michael’s  Church  in  Hildes- 
heim. 

The  cross  executed  by  Bernward’s  own  hands  in  994 
is  a superb  work,  with  filigree  covering  the  whole,  and 
set  with  gems  en  cabochon,  with  pearls,  and  antique 
precious  stones,  carved  with  Greek  divinities  in  intaglio. 
The  candlesticks  of  St.  Bernward,  too,  are  most  interest- 
ing. They  are  made  of  a metal  composed  of  gold,  silver, 
and  iron,  and  are  wrought  magnificently,  into  a mass  of 
animal  and  floriate  forms,  their  outline  being  well 
retained,  and  the  grace  of  the  shaft  and  proportions 
being  striking.  They  are  partly  the  work  of  the  mallet 
and  partly  of  the  chisel.  They  had  been  buried  with 
Bernward,  and  were  found  in  his  sarcophagus  in  1194. 
Didron  has  likened  them,  in  their  use  of  animal  form, 
to  the  art  of  the  Mexicans;  but  to  me  they  seem  more 
like  delightful  German  Romanesque  workmanship, 
leaning  more  towards  that  of  certain  spirited  Lombard 
grotesques,  or  even  that  of  Arles  and  certain  parts  of 


bernward’s  chalice,  hildesheim 


Gold  and  Silver 


19 


France,  than  to  the  Aztec  to  which  Didron  has  refer- 
ence. The  little  climbing  figures,  while  they  certainly 
have  very  large  hands  and  feet,  yet  are  endowed  with  a 
certain  sprightly  action;  they  all  give  the  impression 
of  really  making  an  effort,  — they  are  trying  to  climb, 
instead  of  simply  occupying  places  in  the  foliage. 
There  is  a good  deal  of  strength  and  energy  displayed  in 
all  of  them,  and,  while  the  work  is  rude  and  rough,  it 
is  virile.  It  is  not  unlike  the  workmanship  on  the 
Gloucester  candlestick  in  the  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, which  was  made  in  the  twelfth  century. 

Bern  ward  ?s  chalice  is  set  with  antique  stones,  some 
of  them  carved.  On  the  foot  may  be  seen  one  represent- 
ing the  three  Graces,  in  their  customary  state  of  nudity 
“ without  malice.” 

Bernward  was  also  an  architect.  He  built  the  delight- 
ful church  of  St.  Michael,  and  its  cloister.  He  also 
superintended  the  building  of  an  important  wall  by  the 
river  bank  in  the  lower  town. 

When  there  was  an  uneasy  time  of  controversy  at 
Gandesheim,  Bernward  hastened  to  headquarters  in 
Rome,  to  arrange  to  bring  about  better  feeling.  In 
1001  he  arrived,  early  in  January,  and  the  Pope  went 
out  to  meet  him,  kissed  him,  and  invited  him  to  stay 
as  a guest  at  his  palace.  After  accomplishing  his  diplo- 
matic mission,  and  laden  with  all  sorts  of  sacred  relics, 
Bernward  returned  home,  not  too  directly  to  prevent 
his  seeing  something  of  the  intervening  country. 

A book  which  Bishop  Bernward  had  made  and 


20  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


illuminated  in  1011  has  the  inscription:  "I,  Bernward, 
had  this  codex  written  out,  at  my  own  cost,  and  gave  it 
to  the  beloved  Saint  of  God,  Michael.  Anathema  to 
him  who  alienates  it.”  This  inscription  has  the  more 
interest  for  being  the  actual  autograph  of  Bern  ward. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Hezilo,  and  many  other  pupils. 
These  men  made  the  beautiful  corona  of  the  cathedral, 
of  which  I give  an  illustration  in  detail.  Great  coronas 
or  circular  chandeliers  hung  in  the  naves  of  many 
cathedrals  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  finest  specimen  is 
this  at  Hildesheim,  the  magnificent  ring  of  which  is 
twenty  feet  across,  as  it  hangs  suspended  by  a system 
of  rods  and  balls  in  the  form  of  chains.  It  has  twelve 
large  towers  and  twelve  small  ones  set  around  it,  sup- 
posed to  suggest  the  Heavenly  Jerusalem  with  its  many 
mansions.  There  are  sockets  for  seventy-two  candles. 
The  detail  of  its  adornment  is  very  splendid,  and 
repays  close  study.  Every  little  turret  is  different  in 
architectonic  form,  and  statues  of  saints  are  to  be 
seen  standing  within  these.  The  pierced  silver  work 
on  this  chandelier  is  as  beautiful  as  any  mediaeval 
example  in  existence. 

The  great  leader  of  mediaeval  arts  in  France  was  the 
Abbot  Suger  of  St.  Denis.  Suger  was  born  in  1081, 
he  and  his  brother,  Alvise,  who  was  Bishop  of  Arras, 
both  being  destined  for  the  Episcopate.  As  a youth  he 
passed  ten  years  at  St.  Denis  as  a scholar.  Here  he 
became  intimate  with  Prince  Louis,  and  this  friendship 
developed  in  after  life.  On  returning  from  a voyage  to 


CORONA  AT  HILDESHEIM  (DETAIL) 


. ' I 


-V  "I 


Gold  and  Silver 


21 


Italy,  in  1122,  he  learned  at  the  same  time  of  the  death 
of  his  spiritual  father,  Abbot  Adam,  and  of  his  own 
election  to  be  his  successor.  He  thus  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  convent  of  St.  Denis  in  1123.  This  was  due 
to  his  noble  character,  his  genius  for  diplomacy  and  his 
artistic  talent.  He  was  minister  to  Louis  VI.,  and 
afterwards  to  Louis  VII.,  and  during  the  second  Crusade, 
he  was  made  Regent  for  the  kingdom.  Suger  was  known, 
after  this,  as  the  Father  of  his  Country,  for  he  was  a 
courageous  counsellor,  firm  and  convincing  in  argument, 
so  that  the  king  had  really  been  guided  by  his  advice. 
While  he  was  making  laws  and  instigating  crusades,  he 
was  also  directing  craft  shops  and  propagating  the  arts 
in  connection  with  the  life  of  the  Church.  St.  Bernard 
denounced  him,  as  encouraging  too  luxurious  a ritual; 
Suger  made  a characteristic  reply:  “ If  the  ancient 

law  . . . ordained  that  vessels  and  cups  of  gold  should 
be  used  for  libations,  and  to  receive  the  blood  of  rams, 
. . . how  much  rather  should  we  devote  gold,  precious 
stones,  and  the  rarest  of  materials,  to  those  vessels  which 
are  destined  to  contain  the  blood  of  Our  Lord.’ 7 
Suger  ordered  and  himself  made  most  beautiful 
appointments  for  the  sanctuary,  and  when  any  vessel 
already  owned  by  the  Abbey  was  of  costly  material, 
and  yet  unsuitable  in  style,  he  had  it  remodelled.  An 
interesting  instance  of  this  is  a certain  antique  vase  of 
red  porphyry.  There  was  nothing  ecclesiastical  about 
this  vase;  it  was  a plain  straight  Greek  jar,  with  two 
handles  at  the  sides.  Suger  treated  it  as  the  body  of 


22  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


an  eagle,  making  the  head  and  neck  to  surmount  it, 
and  the  claw  feet  for  it  to  stand  on,  together  with  its 
soaring  wings,  of  solid  gold,  and  it  thus  became  trans- 
formed into  a magnificent  reliquary  in  the  form  of  the 
king  of  birds.  The  inscription  on  this  Ampula  of  Suger 
is:  “ As  it  is  our  duty  to  present  unto  God  oblations 
of  gems  and  gold,  I,  Suger,  offer  this  vase  unto  the 
Lord.” 

Suger  stood  always  for  the  ideal  in  art  and  character. 
He  had  the  courage  of  his  convictions  in  spite  of  the 
fulminations  of  St.  Bernard.  Instead  of  using  the 
enormous  sums  of  money  at  his  disposal  for  importing 
Byzantine  workmen,  he  preferred  to  use  his  funds  and 
his  own  influence  in  developing  a native  French  school 
of  artificers. 

It  is  interesting  to  discover  that  Suger,  among  his 
many  adaptations  and  restorations  at  St.  Denis,  incor- 
porated some  of  the  works  of  St.  Eloi  into  his  own  com- 
positions. For  instance,  he  took  an  ivory  pulpit,  and 
remodelled  it  with  the  addition  of  copper  animals. 
Abbots  of  St.  Denis  made  beautiful  offerings  to  the 
church.  One  of  them,  Abbot  Matthiew  de  Vendome, 
presented  a wonderful  reliquary,  consisting  of  a golden 
head  and  bust,  while  another  gave  a reliquary  to  con- 
tain the  jaw  of  St.  Louis.  Suger  presented  many  fine 
products  of  his  own  art  and  that  of  his  pupils,  among 
others  a great  cross  six  feet  in  height.  A story  is  told 
of  him,  that,  while  engaged  in  making  a particularly 
splendid  crucifix  for  St.  Denis,  he  ran  short  of  precious 


Gold  and  Silver 


23 


stones,  nor  could  he  in  any  way  obtain  what  he  required, 
until  some  monks  came  to  him  and  offered  to  sell  him 
a superb  lot  of  stones  which  had  formerly  embellished 
the  dinner  service  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  whose  nephew 
had  given  them  to  the  convent  in  exchange  for  indul- 
gences and  masses!  In  these  early  and  half-barbaric 
days  of  magnificence,  form  and  delicacy  of  execution 
were  not  understood.  Brilliancy  and  lavish  display 
of  sparkling  jewels,  set  as  thickly  as  possible  without 
reference  to  a general  scheme  of  composition,  was  the 
standard  of  beauty;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that,  with 
such  stones  available,  no  more  effective  school  of  work 
has  ever  existed  than  that  of  which  such  works  as 
Charlemagne’s  crown,  the  Iron  Crown  of  Monza,  and 
the  crown  of  King  Suinthila,  are  typical  examples. 
Abbot  Suger  lamented  when  he  lacked  a sufficient 
supply  of  stones;  but  he  did  not  complain  when  there 
occurred  a deficiency  in  workmen.  It  was  comparatively 
easy  to  train  artists  who  could  make  settings  and  bind 
stones  together  with  soldered  straps! 

In  1352  a royal  silversmith  of  France,  Etienne  La 
Fontaine,  made  a “ fauteuil  of  silver  and  crystal  deco- 
rated with  precious  stones,”  for  the  king. 

The  golden  altar  of  Basle  is  almost  as  interesting  as 
the  great  Pala  d’Oro  in  Venice,  of  which  mention  is 
made  elsewhere.  It  was  ordered  by  Emperor  Henry  the 
Pious,  before  1024,  and  presented  to  the  Prime  Minister 
at  Basle.  The  central  figure  of  the  Saviour  has  at  its 
feet  two  tiny  figures,  quite  out  of  scale;  these  are 


24  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


intended  for  the  donors,  Emperor  Henry  and  his  queen, 
Cunegunda. 

Silversmith’s  work  in  Spain  was  largely  in  Byzantine 
style,  while  some  specimens  of  Gothic  and  Roman  are 
also  to  be  seen  there.  Moorish  influence  is  noticeable, 
as  in  all  Spanish  design,  and  filigree  work  of  Oriental 
origin  is  frequently  to  be  met  with.  Some  specimens 
of  champleve  enamel  are  also  to  be  seen,  though  this 
art  was  generally  confined  to  Limoges  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  A Guild  was  formed  in  Toledo  which  was 
in  flourishing  condition  in  1423. 

An  interesting  document  has  been  found  in  Spain 
showing  that  craftsmen  were  supplied  with  the  necessary 
materials  when  engaged  to  make  valuable  figures  for 
the  decoration  of  altars.  It  is  dated  May  12,  1367, 
“ I,  Sancho  Martinez  Orebsc,  silversmith,  native  of 
Seville,  inform  you,  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  the  church 
of  Seville,  that  it  was  agreed  that  I make  an  image  of 
St.  Mary  with  its  tabernacle,  that  it  should  be  finished 
at  a given  time,  and  that  you  were  to  give  me  the  silver 
and  stones  required  to  make  it.” 

In  Spain,  the  most  splendid  triumphs  of  the  gold- 
smith’s  skill  were  the  “ custodias,”  or  large  tabernacles, 
in  which  the  Host  was  carried  in  procession.  The  finest 
was  one  made  for  Toledo  by  Enrique  d’Arphe,  in  com- 
petition with  other  craftsmen.  His  design  being  chosen, 
he  began  his  work  in  1517,  and  in  1524  the  custodia  was 
finished.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a Gothic  temple,  six 
sided,  with  a jewelled  cross  on  the  top,  and  was  eight 


Gold  and  Silver 


25 


feet  high.  Some  of  the  gold  employed  was  the  first 
ever  brought  from  America.  The  whole  structure 
weighed  three  hundred  and  eighty-eight  pounds.  Arphe 
made  a similar  custodia  for  Cordova  and  another  for 
Leon.  His  grandson,  Juan  d’ Arphe,  wrote  a verse  about 
the  Toledo  custodia,  in  which  these  lines  occur: 

“ Custodia  is  a temple  of  rich  plate 
Wrought  for  the  glory  of  Our  Saviour  true  . . . 

That  holiest  ark  of  old  to  imitate, 

Fashioned  by  Bezaleel  the  cunning  Jew, 

Chosen  of  God  to  work  his  sovereign  will, 

And  greatly  gifted  with  celestial  skill.” 

Juan  d’ Arphe  himself  made  a custodia  for  Seville, 
the  decorations  and  figures  on  which  were  directed  by 
the  learned  Francesco  Pacheco,  the  father-in-law  of 
Velasquez.  When  this  custodia  was  completed,  d’ Arphe 
wrote  a description  of  it,  alluding  boldly  to  this  work 
as  “ the  largest  and  finest  work  in  silver  known  of  its 
kind,”  and  this  could  really  be  said  without  conceit, 
for  it  is  a fact. 

A Gothic  form  of  goldsmith’s  work  obtained  in  Spain 
in  the  13th,  14th  and  15th  centuries;  it  was  based  upon 
architectural  models  and  was  known  as  ■“  plateresca.” 
The  shrines  for  holding  relics  became  in  these  centuries 
positive  buildings  on  a small  scale  in  precious  material. 
In  England  also  were  many  of  these  shrines,  but  few  of 
them  now  remain. 

The  first  Mayor  of  London,  from  1189  to  1213,  was  a 
goldsmith,  Henry  Fitz  Alwyn,  the  Founder  of  the 
Royal  Exchange;  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  in  1520,  was 


26  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


also  a goldsmith  and  a banker.  There  is  an  entertaining 
piece  of  cynical  satire  on  the  Goldsmiths  in  Stubbes' 
Anatomy  of  Abuses,  written  in  the  time  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, showing  that  the  tricks  of  the  trade  had  come  to 
full  development  by  that  time,  and  that  the  public  was 
being  aroused  on  the  subject.  Stubbes  explains  how 
the  goldsmith's  shops  are  decked  with  chains  and  rings, 
“ wonderful  richly."  Then  he  goes  on  to  say:  “ They 
will  make  you  any  monster  or  article  whatsoever  of 
gold,  silver,  or  what  you  will.  Is  there  no  deceit  in 
these  goodlye  shows?  Yes,  too  many;  if  you  will  buy  a 
chain  of  gold,  a ring,  or  any  kind  of  plate,  besides  that 
you  shall  pay  almost  half  more  than  it  is  worth  . . . 
you  shall  also  perhaps  have  that  gold  which  is  naught, 
or  else  at  least  mixed  with  drossie  rubbage.  . . . But 
this  happeneth  very  seldom  by  reason  of  good  orders, 
and  constitutions  made  for  the  punishment  of  them  that 
offend  in  this  kind  of  deceit,  and  therefore  they  seldom 
offend  therein,  though  now  and  then  they  chance  to 
stumble  in  the  dark!  " 

Fynes  Moryson,  a traveller  who  died  in  1614,  says 
that  “ the  goldsmiths'  shops  in  London  ...  are  exceed- 
ingly richty  furnished  continually  with  gold,  with  silver 
plate,  and  with  jewels.  ...  I never  see  any  such  daily 
show,  anything  so  sumptuous,  in  any  place  in  the  world, 
as  in  London."  He  admits  that  in  Florence  and  Paris 
the  similar  shops  are  very  rich  upon  special  occasions; 
but  it  is  the  steady  state  of  the  market  in  London  to 
which  he  has  reference. 


Gold  and  Silver 


27 


The  Company  of  Goldsmiths  in  Dublin  held  quite  a 
prominent  social  position  in  the  community.  In  1649, 
a great  festival  and  pageant  took  place,  in  which  the 
goldsmiths  and  visiting  craftsmen  from  other  corpora- 
tions took  part. 

Henry  III.  set  himself  to  enrich  and  beautify  the 
shrine  of  his  patron  saint,  Edward  the  Confessor,  and 
with  this  end  in  view  he  made  various  extravagant 
demands:  for  instance,  at  one  time  he  ordered  all  the 
gold  in  London  to  be  detailed  to  this  object,  and  at 
another,  he  had  gold  rings  and  brooches  purchased  to 
the  value  of  six  hundred  marks.  The  shrine  was  of 
gold,  and,  according  to  Matthew  Paris,  enriched  with 
jewels.  It  was  commenced  in  1241.  In  1244  the 
queen  presented  an  image  of  the  Virgin  with  a ruby  and 
an  emerald.  Jewels  were  purchased  from  time  to  time, — 
a great  cameo  in  1251,  and  in  1255  many  gems  of  great 
value.  The  son  of  Odo  the  Goldsmith,  Edward,  was  the 
“ king’s  beloved  clerk,”  and  was  made  “ keeper  of  the 
shrine.”  Most  of  the  little  statuettes  were  described 
as  having  stones  set  somewhere  about  them : “ an  image 
of  St.  Peter  holding  a church  in  one  hand  and  the  keys 
in  the  other,  trampling  on  Nero,  who  had  a big  sapphire 
on  his  breast;”  and  “ the  Blessed  Virgin  with  her  Son, 
set  with  rubies,  sapphires,  emeralds,  and  garnets,”  are 
among  those  cited.  The  whole  shrine  was  described  as 
“ a basilica  adorned  with  purest  gold  and  precious 
stones.” 

Odo  the  Goldsmith  was  in  charge  of  the  works  for  a 


28  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


good  while.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Edward. 
Payments  were  made  sometimes  in  a regular  wage,  and 
sometimes  for  “ task  work.”  The  workmen  were 
usually  known  by  one  name  — Master  Alexander  the 
King’s  Carpenter,  Master  Henry  the  King’s  Master 
Mason,  and  so  forth.  In  an  early  life  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  there  is  an  illumination  showing  the  masons 
and  carpenters  kneeling  to  receive  instruction  from  their 
sovereign. 

The  golden  shrine  of  the  Confessor  was  probably 
made  in  the  Palace  itself ; this  was  doubtless  considered 
the  safest  place  for  so  valuable  a work  to  remain  in 
process  of  construction;  for  there  is  an  allusion  to  its 
being  brought  on  the  King’s  own  shoulders  (with  the 
assistance  of  others),  from  the  palace  to  the  Abbey,  in 
1269,  for  its  consecration. 

In  1243  Henry  III.  ordered  four  silver  basins,  fitted 
with  cakes  of  wax  with  wicks  in  them,  to  be  placed  as 
lights  before  the  shrine  of  Thomas  a Becket  in  Canter- 
bury. The  great  gold  shrine  of  Becket  appears  to  have 
been  chiefly  the  work  of  a goldsmith,  Master  Adam. 
He  also  designed  the  Coronation  Chair  of  England, 
which  is  now  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  chief  goldsmith  of  England  employed  by  Edward 
I.  was  one  Adam  of  Shoreditch.  He  was  versatile,  for 
he  was  also  a binder  of  books.  A certain  bill  shows  an 
item  of  his  workmanship,  “ a group  in  silver  of  a child 
riding  upon  a horse,  the  child  being  a likeness  of  Lord 
Edward,  the  King’s  son.” 


Gold  and  Silver 


29 


A veritable  Arts  and  Crafts  establishment  had  been 
in  existence  in  Woolstrope,  Lincolnshire,  before  Crom- 
well's time;  for  Georde  Gifford  wrote  to  Cromwell 
regarding  the  suppression  of  this  monastery:  “ There  is 
not  one  religious  person  there  but  what  doth  use  either 
embrothering,  wryting  books  with  a faire  hand,  making 
garments,  or  carving." 

In  all  countries  the  chalices  and  patens  were  usually 
designed  to  correspond  with  each  other.  The  six  lobed 
dish  was  a very  usual  form;  it  had  a depressed  centre, 
with  six  indented  scallops,  and  the  edge  flat  like  a dinner 
plate.  In  an  old  church  inventory,  mention  is  made 
of  “ a chalice  with  his  paten."  Sometimes  there  was 
lettering  around  the  flat  edge  of  the  paten.  Chalices 
were  composed  of  three  parts:  the  cup,  the  ball  or  knop, 
and  the  stem,  with  the  foot.  The  original  purpose  of 
having  this  foot  hexagonal  in  shape  is  said  to  have  been 
to  prevent  the  chalice  from  rolling  when  it  was  laid  on 
its  side  to  drain.  Under  many  modifications  this  general 
plan  of  the  cup  has  obtained.  The  bowl  is  usually 
entirely  plain,  to  facilitate  keeping  it  clean;  most  of 
the  decoration  was  lavished  on  the  knop,  a rich  and 
uneven  surface  being  both  beautiful  and  functional  in 
this  place. 

Such  Norman  and  Romanesque  chalices  as  remain  are 
chiefly  in  museums  now.  They  were  usually  11  coffin 
chalices  " — that  is,  they  had  been  buried  in  the  coffin 
of  some  ecclesiastic.  Of  Gothic  chalices,  or  those  of  the 
Tudor  period,  fewer  remain,  for  after  the  Reformation, 


30  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


a general  order  went  out  to  the  churches,  for  all  “ chalices 
to  be  altered  to  decent  Communion  cups.”  The  shape 
was  greatly  modified  in  this  change. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  taste  ran  rather  to  a 
chaster  form  of  decoration;  the  large  cabochons  of  the 
Romanesque,  combined  with  a liquid  gold  surface,  gave 
place  to  refined  ornaments  in  niello  and  delicate  enamels. 
The  bowls  of  the  earlier  chalices  were  rather  flat  and 
broad.  When  it  became  usual  for  the  laity  to  partake 
only  of  one  element  when  communicating,  the  chalice, 
which  was  reserved  for  the  clergy  alone,  became  modified 
to  meet  this  condition,  and  the  bowl  was  much  smaller. 
After  the  Reformation,  however,  the  development  was 
quite  in  the  other  direction,  the  bowl  being  extremely 
large  and  deep.  In  that  period  they  were  known  as 
communion  cups.  In  Sandwich  there  is  a cup  which 
was  made  over  out  of  a ciborium;  as  it  quite  plainly 
shows  its  origin,  it  is  naively  inscribed:  “This  is  a 

Communion  Coop.”  When  this  change  in  the  form  of 
the  chalice  took  place,  it  was  provided,  by  admonition 
of  the  Archbishop,  in  all  cases  with  a “ cover  of  silver 
. . . which  shall  serve  also  for  the  ministration  of  the 
Communion  bread.”  To  make  this  double  use  of  cover 
and  dish  satisfactory,  a foot  like  a stand  was  added  to 
the  paten. 

The  communion  cup  of  the  Reformation  differed 
from  the  chalice,  too,  in  being  taller  and  straighter,  with 
a deep  bowl,  almost  in  the  proportions  of  a flaring 
tumbler,  and  a stem  with  a few  close  decorations  instead 


Gold  and  Silver 


31 


of  a knop.  The  small  paten  served  as  a cover  to  the 
cup,  as  has  been  mentioned. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  see  old  church  plate  where  it 
originally  belonged.  On  the  Scottish  border,  for  instance, 
there  were  constant  raids,  when  the  Scots  would  descend 
upon  the  English  parish  churches,  and  bear  off  the 
communion  plate,  and  again  the  English  would  cross 
the  border  and  return  the  compliment.  In  old  churches, 
such  as  the  eleventh  century  structure  at  Torpenhow, 
in  Cumberland,  the  deep  sockets  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
stone  door  jambs  were  intended  to  support  great  beams 
with  which  the  church  had  constantly  to  be  fortified 
against  Scottish  invasion.  Another  reason  for  the 
disappearance  of  church  plate,  was  the  occasional  sale 
of  the  silver  in  order  to  continue  necessary  repairs  on 
the  fabric.  In  a church  in  Norfolk,  there  is  a record  of 
sale  of  communion  silver  and  “ for  altering  of  our  church 
and  fynnishing  of  the  same  according  to  our  mindes  and 
the  parishioners.”  It  goes  on  to  state  that  the  proceeds 
were  appropriated  for  putting  new  glass  in  the  place  of 
certain  windows  “ wherein  were  conteined  the  lives  of 
certain  prophane  histories,”  and  for  “ paving  the  king’s 
highway  ” in  the  church  precincts.  At  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  many  valuable  examples  of  Church  plate 
were  cast  aside  by  order  of  the  Commissioners,  by  which 
“ all  monuments  of  feyned  miracles,  pilgrimages,  idol- 
atry, and  superstition,”  were  to  be  destroyed.  At  this 
time  a calf  or  a sheep  might  have  been  seen  browsing 
in  the  meadows  with  a sacring-bell  fastened  at  its  neck, 


32  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


and  the  pigs  refreshed  themselves  with  drinking  from 
holy- water  fonts! 

Croziers  of  ornate  design  especially  roused  the  ire  of 
the  Puritans.  In  Mr.  Alfred  Maskell’s  incomparable 
book  on  Ivories,  he  translates  a satirical  verse  by  Guy 
de  Coquille,  concerning  these  objectionable  pastoral 
staves  (which  were  often  made  of  finely  sculptured 
ivory). 


“ The  staff  of  a bishop  of  days  that  are  old 
Was  of  wood,  and  the  bishop  himself  was  of  gold. 

But  a bishop  of  wood  prefers  gorgeous  array, 

So  his  staff  is  of  gold  in  the  new  fashioned  way!  ” 

During  the  Renaissance  especially,  goldsmith’s  work 
was  carried  to  great  technical  perfection,  and  yet  the 
natural  properties  of  the  metal  were  frequently  lost 
sight  of,  and  the  craftsmen  tried  to  produce  effects 
such  as  would  be  more  suitable  in  stone  or  wood,  — 
little  architectonic  features  were  introduced,  and  gold 
was  frequently  made  to  do  the  work  of  other  materials. 
Thus  it  lost  much  of  its  inherent  effectiveness.  Too 
much  attention  was  given  to  ingenuity,  and  not  enough 
to  fitness  and  beauty. 

In  documents  f the  fourteenth  century,  the  following 
list  of  goldsmiths  is  given:  Jean  de  Mantreux  was  gold- 
smith to  King  Jean.  Claux  de  Friburg  was  celebrated 
for  a gold  statuette  of  St.  John  which  he  made  for  the 
Duke  of  Normandy.  A diadem  for  this  Duke  was  also 
recorded,  made  by  Jean  de  Piguigny.  Hannequin  made 


RELIQUARY  AT  ORYIETO 


Gold  and  Silver 


33 


three  golden  crowns  for  Charles  V.  Hans  Crest  was 
goldsmith  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  while  others  employed 
by  him  were  Durosne,  of  Toulouse,  Jean  de  Bethan- 
court,  a Flemish  goldsmith.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
the  names  of  Jean  de  Hasquin,  Perrin  Manne,  and 
Margerie  d’Avignon,  were  famous. 

Artists  in  the  Renaissance  were  expected  to  undertake 
several  branches  of  their  craft.  Hear  Poussin:  “It  is 
impossible  to  work  at  the  same  time  upon  frontispieces 
of  books:  a Virgin:  at  the  picture  for  the  congregation 
of  St.  Louis,  at  the  designs  for  the  gallery,  and  for  the 
king’s  tapestry ! I have  only  a feeble  head,  and  am  not 
aided  by  anyone!  ” 

A goldsmith  attached  to  the  Court  of  King  Rene  of 
Anjou  was  Jean  Nicolas.  Rene  also  gave  many  orders 
to  one  Liguier  Rabotin,  of  Avignon,  who  made  him 
several  cups  of  solid  gold,  on  a large  tray  of  the  same 
precious  metal.  The  king  often  drew  his  own  designs 
or  such  bijoux. 

Among  the  famous  men  of  Italy  were  several  who 
practised  the  art  of  the  goldsmith.  Ugolino  of  Siena 
constructed  the  wonderful  reliquary  at  Orvieto;  this 
is  in  shape  somewhat  similar  to  the  fagade  of  the  cathe- 
dral. 

Verocchio,  the  instructor  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  accom- 
plished several  important  pieces  of  jewelery  in  his 
youth:  cope-buttons  and  silver  statuettes,  chiefly, 

which  were  so  successful  that  he  determined  to  take  up 
the  career  of  a sculptor.  Ghirlandajo,  as  is  well  known, 


34  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


was  trained  as  a goldsmith  originally,  his  father  having 
been  the  inventor  of  a pretty  fashion  then  prevailing 
among  young  girls  of  Florence,  and  being  the  maker  of 
those  golden  garlands  worn  on  the  heads  of  maidens. 
The  name  Ghirlandajo,  indeed,  was  derived  from  these 
garlands  (ghirlandes). 

Francia  began  life  as  a goldsmith,  too,  and  was  never 
in  after  life  ashamed  of  his  profession,  for  he  often 
signed  his  works  Francesco  Francia  Aurifex.  Francia 
was  a very  skilful  workman  in  niello,  and  in  enamels. 
In  fact,  to  quote  the  enthusiastic  Vasari,  “ he  executed 
everything  that  is  most  beautiful,  and  which  can  be 
performed  in  that  art  more  perfectly  than  any  other 
master  had  ever  done.”  Baccio  Baldini,  also,  was  a 
goldsmith,  although  a greater  portion  of  his  ability 
was  turned  in  the  direction  of  engraving.  His  pupil 
Maso  Finniguerra,  who  turned  also  to  engraving,  began 
his  career  as  a goldsmith. 

The  great  silver  altar  in  the  Baptistery  in  Florence 
occupied  nearly  all  the  goldsmiths  in  that  city.  In  1330 
the  father  of  the  Orcagnas,  Cione,  died;  he  had  worked 
for  some  years  before  that  on  the  altar.  In  1366  the 
altar  was  destroyed,  but  the  parts  in  bas-relief  by  Cione 
were  retained  and  incorporated  into  the  new  work, 
which  was  finished  in  1478.  Ghiberti,  Orcagna,  Veroc- 
chio,  and  Pollajuolo,  all  executed  various  details  of 
this  magnificent  monument. 

Goldsmiths  did  not  quite  change  their  standing  and 
characteristics  until  late  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


Gold  and  Silver 


35 


About  that  time  it  may  be  said  that  the  last  goldsmith 
of  the  old  school  was  Claude  Ballin,  while  the  first 
jeweller,  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the  word,  was 
Pierre  de  Montarsy. 

Silver  has  always  been  selected  for  the  better  house- 
hold utensils,  not  only  on  account  of  its  beauty,  but  also 
because  of  its  ductility,  which  is  desirable  in  making 
larger  vessels;  its  value,  too,  is  less  than  that  of  gold, 
so  that  articles  which  would  be  quite  out  of  the  reach  of 
most  householders,  if  made  in  gold,  become  very  avail- 
able in  silver.  Silver  is  particularly  adapted  to  daily  use, 
for  the  necessary  washing  and  polishing  which  it  receives 
keeps  it  in  good  condition,  and  there  is  no  danger  from 
poison  through  corrosion,  as  with  copper  and  brass. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  customary  pieces  of  plate  in 
English  homes  were  basins,  bottles,  bowls,  candlesticks, 
saucepans,  jugs,  dishes,  ewers  and  flagons,  and  chafing- 
dishes  for  warming  the  hands,  which  were  undoubtedly 
needed,  when  we  remember  how  intense  the  cold  must 
have  been  in  those  high,  bare,  ill- ventilated  halls ! There 
were  also  large  cups  called  hanaps,  smaller  cups,  plates, 
and  porringers,  salt-cellars, . spoons,  and  salvers.  Forks 
were  of  much  later  date. 

There  are  records  of  several  silver  basins  in  the  Register 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  also  in  the  Inventory  of  Lord 
Lisle:  one  being  “a  basin  and  ewer  with  arms”  and 
another,  “ a shaving  basin.”  John  of  Gaunt  also  owned 
“ a silver  bowl  for  the  kitchen.”  If  the  mediaeval  house- 
hold lacked  comforts,  it  could  teach  us  lessons  in  luxury 


36  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

in  some  other  departments!  He  also  had  a “ pair  of 
silver  bottles,  partly  gilt,  and  enamelled,  garnished 
with  tissues  of  silk,  white  and  blue,”  and  a “ casting 
bottle  ” for  distributing  perfume.  Silver  candelabra 
were  recorded;  these,  of  course,  must  have  been  in 
constant  service,  as  the  facilities  for  lighting  were  largely 
dependent  upon  them.  When  the  Crown  was  once 
obliged  to  ask  a loan  from  the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  in  1432, 
the  Earl  received,  as  earnest  of  payment,  “ two  golden 
candelabra,  garnished  with  pearls  and  precious  stones.” 
In  the  Close  Roll  of  Henry  III.  of  England,  there  is 
found  an  interesting  order  to  a goldsmith:  “ Edward, 
son  of  Eudo,  with  all  haste,  by  day  and  by  night,  make 
a cup  with  a foot  for  the  Queen:  weighing  two  marks, 
not  more;  price  twenty  marks,  against  Christmas,  that 
she  may  drink  from  it  in  that  feast:  and  paint  it  and 
enamel  it  all  over,  and  in  every  other  way  that  you  can, 
let  it  be  decently  and  beautifully  wrought,  so  that  the 
King,  no  less  than  the  said  Queen,  may  be  content 
therewith.”  All  the  young  princes  and  princesses  were 
presented  with  silver  cups,  also,  as  they  came  to  such 
age  as  made  the  use  of  them  expedient;  Lionel  and 
John,  sons  of  Edward  III.,  were  presented  with  cups 
“ with  leather  covers  for  the  same,”  when  they  were 
one  and  three  years  old  respectively.  In  1423  the  chief 
justice,  Sir  William  Hankford,  gave  his  great-grand- 
daughter a baptismal  gift  of  a gilt  cup  and  a diamond 
ring,  together  with  a curious  testimonial  of  eight  shil- 
lings and  sixpence  to  the  nurse! 


Gold  and  Silver 


37 


Of  dishes,  the  records  are  meagre,  but  there  is  an 
amusing  entry  among  the  Lisle  papers  referring  to  a 
couple  of  11  conserve  dishes  ” for  which  Lady  Lisle 
expressed  a wish.  Husee  had  been  ordered  to  procure 
these,  but  writes,  “ I can  get  no  conserve  dishes  . . . 
however,  if  they  be  to  be  had,  I will  have  of  them,  or  it 
shall  cost  me  hot  water!  ” A little  later  he  observes, 
“ Towards  Christmas  day  they  shall  be  made  at  Bevoys, 
betwixt  Abbeville  and  Paris.” 

Flagons  were  evidently  a novelty  in  1471,  for  there 
is  an  entry  in  the  Issue  Roll  of  Edward  IV.,  which 
mentions  “ two  ollas  called  silver  flagons  for  the  King.” 
An  olla  was  a Latin  term  for  a jar.  Lord  Lisle  rejoiced 
in  “ a pair  of  flagons,  the  gilt  sore  worn.”  Hanaps  were 
more  usual,  and  appear  to  have  been  usually  in  the  form 
of  goblets.  They  frequently  had  stands  called  “ tripers.” 
Sometimes  these  stands  were  very  ornate,  as,  for  instance, 
one  owned  by  the  Bishop  of  Carpentras,  “ in  the  shape 
of  a flying  dragon,  with  a crowned  damsel  sitting  upon 
a green  terrace.”  Another,  belonging  to  the  Countess  of 
Cambridge,  was  described  as  being  “ in  the  shape  of  a 
monster,  with  three  buttresses  and  three  bosses  of 
mother  of  pearl  . . . and  an  ewer,  . . . partly  enam- 
elled with  divers  babooneries  ” — -a  delightful  expres- 
sion! Other  hanaps  were  in  the  forms  of  swans,  oak 
trees,  white  harts,  eagles,  lions,  and  the  like  — probably 
often  of  heraldic  significance. 

A set  of  platters  was  sent  from  Paris  to  Richard  II., 
all  of  gold,  with  balas  rubies,  pearls  and  sapphires  set 


38  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


in  them.  It  is  related  of  the  ancient  Frankish  king, 
Chilperic,  that  he  had  made  a dish  of  solid  gold,  “ orna- 
mented all  over  with  precious  stones,  and  weighing  fifty 
pounds,”  while  Lothaire  owned  an  enormous  silver 
basin  bearing  as  decoration  “ the  world  with  the  courses 
of  the  stars  and  the  planets.” 

The  porringer  was  a very  important  article  of  table 
use,  for  pap,  and  soft  foods  such  as  we  should  term 
cereals,  and  for  boiled  pudding.  These  were  all  denomi- 
nated porridge,  and  were  eaten  from  these  vessels. 
Soup  was  doubtless  served  in  them  as  well.  They  were 
numerous  in  every  household.  In  the  Roll  of  Henry 
III.  is  an  item,  mentioning  that  he  had  ordered  twenty 
porringers  to  be  made,  “ like  the  one  hundred  por- 
ringers ” which  had  already  been  ordered! 

An  interesting  pattern  of  silver  cups  in  Elizabethan 
times  were  the  “ trussing  cups,”  namely,  two  goblets 
of  silver,  squat  in  shape  and  broad  in  bowl,  which  fitted 
together  at  the  rim,  so  that  one  was  inverted  as  a sort 
of  cover  on  top  of  the  other  when  they  were  not  in  use. 
Drinking  cups  were  sometimes  made  out  of  cocoanuts, 
mounted  in  silver,  and  often  of  ostrich  eggs,  similarly 
treated,  and  less  frequently  of  horns  hollowed  out  and 
set  on  feet.  Mediaeval  loving  cups  were  usually  named, 
and  frequently  for  some  estates  that  belonged  to  the 
owner.  Cups  have  been  known  to  bear  such  names  as 
“ Spang,”  “ Bealchier,”  and  “ Crumpuldud,”  while 
others  bore  the  names  of  the  patron  saints  of  their 
owners. 


Gold  and  Silver 


39 


A kind  of  cruet  is  recorded  among  early  French  table 
silver,  “ a double  necked  bottle  in  divisions,  in  which 
to  place  two  kinds  of  liquor  without  mixing  them.”  A 
curious  bit  of  table  silver  in  France,  also,  was  the 
“ almsbox,”  into  which  each  guest  was  supposed  to  put 
some  piece  of  food,  to  be  given  to  the  poor. 

Spoons  were  very  early  in  their  origin;  St.  Radegond 
is  reported  by  a contemporary  to  have  used  a spoon,  in 
feeding  the  blind  and  infirm.  A quaint  book  of  instruc- 
tions to  children,  called  “ The  Babee’s  Booke,”  in  1475, 
advises  by  way  of  table  manners : ' 

“ And  whenever  your  potage  to  you  shall  be  brought, 

Take  your  sponys  and  soupe  by  no  way, 

And  in  your  dish  leave  not  your  spoon,  I pray!  ” 

And  a later  volume  on  the  same  subject,  in  1500,  com- 
mends a proper  respect  for  the  implements  of  the 
table : 

“ Ne  playe  with  spoone,  trencher,  ne  knife.” 

Spoons  of  curious  form  were  evidently  made  all  the 
way  from  1300  to  the  present  day.  In  an  old  will,  in 
1477,  mention  is  made  of  spoons  “ wt  leopards  hedes 
printed  in  the  sponself,”  and  in  another,  six  spoons 
“ wt  owles  at  the  end  of  the  handles.”  Professor  Wilson 
said,  “ A plated  spoon  is  a pitiful  imposition,”  and  he 
was  right.  If  there  is  one  article  of  table  service  in 
which  solidity  of  metal  is  of  more  importance  than  in 
another,  it  is  the  spoon,  which  must  perforce  come  in 


40  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


contact  with  the  lips  whenever  it  is  used.  In  England 
the  earliest  spoons  were  of  about  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  the  first  idea  of  a handle  seems  to  have  been  a plain 
shaft  ending  in  a ball  or  knob.  Gradually  spoons  began 
to  show  more  of  the  decorative  instinct  of  their  designers; 
acorns,  small  statuettes,  and  such  devices  terminated 
the  handles,  which  still  retained  their  slender  proportions, 


however.  Finally  it  became  popular  to  have  images 
of  the  Virgin  on  individual  spoons,  which  led  to  the 
idea,  after  a bit,  of  decorating  the  dozen  with  the 
twelve  apostles.  These  may  be  seen  of  all  periods, 
differently  elaborated.  Sets  of  thirteen  are  occasionally 
met  with,  these  having  one  with  the  statue  of  Jesus  as 
the  Good  Shepherd,  with  a lamb  on  his  shoulders:  it 
is  known  as  the  “ Master  spoon,” 


Gold  and  Silver 


41 


The  first  mention  of  forks  in  France  is  in  the  Inventory 
of  Charles  V.,  in  1379.  We  hear  a great  deal  about  the 
promiscuous  use  of  knives  before  forks  were  invented; 
how  in  the  children’s  book  of  instructions  they  are 
enjoined  “ pick  not  thy  teeth  with  thy  knife/’  as  if 
it  were  a general  habit  requiring  to  be  checked.  Mas- 
singer alludes  to  a 

“ silver  fork 

To  convey  an  olive  neatly  to  thy  mouth,” 

but  this  may  apply  to  pickle  forks.  Forks  were  intro- 
duced from  Italy  into  England  about  1607. 

A curiosity  in  cutlery  is  the  “ musical  knife  ” at  the 
Louvre;  the  blade  is  steel,  mounted  in  parcel  gilt,  and 
the  handle  is  of  ivory.  On  the  blade  is  engraved  a few 
bars  of  music  (arranged  for  the  bass  only),  accom- 
panying the  words,  “ What  we  are  about  to  take  may 
Trinity  in  Unity  bless.  Amen.”  This  is  a literal  trans- 
lation. It  indicates  that  there  were  probably  three 
other  knives  in  the  set  so  ornamented,  one  with  the 
soprano,  one  alto,  and  one  tenor,  so  that  four  persons 
sitting  down  to  table  together  might  chant  their  “ grace  ” 
in  four-part  harmony,  having  the  requisite  notes  before 
them!  It  was  a quaint  idea,  but  quite  in  keeping  with 
the  taste  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  domestic  plate  of  Louis,  Duke  of  Anjou,  in  1360, 
consisted  of  over  seven  hundred  pieces,  and  Charles  V. 
of  France  had  an  enormous  treasury  of  such  objects  for 
daily  use.  Strong  rooms  and  safes  were  built  during 


42  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


IVORY  KNIFE  HANDLES,  WITH  PORTRAITS  OF  QUEEN  ELIZABETH  AND 
JAMES  I.  ENGLIS 


Gold  and  Silver 


43 


the  fourteenth  century,  for  the  lodging  of  the  household 
valuables.  About  this  time  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy 
were  famous  for  their  splendid  table  service.  Indeed, 
the  craze  for  domestic  display  in  this  line  became  so 
excessive,  that  in  1356  King  John  of  France  prohibited 
the  further  production  of  such  elaborate  pieces,  “ gold 
or  silver  plate,  vases,  or  silver  jewelry,  of  more  than 
one  mark  of  gold,  or  silver,  excepting  for  churches.” 
This  edict,  however,  accomplished  little,  and  was  con- 
stantly evaded.  Many  large  pieces  of  silver  made  in 
the  period  of  the  Renaissance  were  made  simply  with 
a view  to  standing  about  as  ornaments.  Cellini  alludes 
to  certain  vases  which  had  been  ordered  from  him,  saying 
that  “ they  are  called  ewers,  and  they  are  placed  upon 
buffets  for  the  purpose  of  display.” 

The  salt  cellar  was  always  a piece  de  resistance , and 
stood  in  the  centre  of  the  table.  It  was  often  in  the  form 
of  a ship  in  silver.  A book  entitled  u Ffor  to  serve  a 
Lorde,”  in  1500,  directs  the  “ boteler  ” or  “ panter,” 
to  bring  forth  the  principal  salt,  and  to  “ set  the  saler 
in  the  myddys  of  the  table.”  Persons  helped  themselves 
to  salt  with  “ a clene  kniffe.”  The  seats  of  honour  were 
all  about  the  salt,  while  those  of  less  degree  were  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  table,  and  were  designated  as  “ below 
the  salt.”  The  silver  ship  was  commonly  an  immense 
piece  of  plate,  containing  the  napkin,  goblet,  and  knife 
and  spoon  of  the  host,  besides  being  the  receptacle  for 
the  spices  and  salt.  Through  fear  of  poison,  the  precau- 
tion was  taken  of  keeping  it  covered.  This  ship  was 


44  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

often  known  as  the  “ nef,”  and  frequently  had  a name, 
as  if  it  were  the  family  yacht ! One  is  recorded  as  having 
been  named  the  “ Tyger,”  while  a nef  belonging  to  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  was  called  the  “ Porquepy,”  meaning 
porcupine.  One  of  the  historic  salts,  in  another  form, 
is  the  “ Huntsman’s  salt,”  and  is  kept  at  All  Soul’s 
College,  Oxford.  The  figure  of  a huntsman,  bears  upon 
its  head  a rock  crystal  box  with  a lid.  About  the  feet 
of  this  figure  are  several  tiny  animals  and  human  beings, 
so  that  it  looks  as  if  the  intent  had  been  to  picture  some 
gigantic  legendary  hunter  — a sort  of  Gulliver  of  the 
chase. 

The  table  was  often  furnished  also  with  a fountain, 
in  which  drinking-water  was  kept,  and  upon  which 
either  stood  or  hung  cups  or  goblets.  These  fountains 
were  often  of  fantastic  shapes,  and  usually  enamelled. 
One  is  described  as  representing  a dragon  on  a tree  top, 
and  another  a castle  on  a hill,  with  a convenient  tap 
at  some  point  for  drawing  off  the  water. 

The  London  City  Companies  are  rich  in  their  posses- 
sions of  valuable  plate.  Some  of  the  cups  are  especially 
beautiful.  The  Worshipful  Company  of  Skinners  owns 
some  curious  loving  cups,  emblematic  of  the  names  of 
the  donors.  There  are  five  Cockayne  Loving  Cups,  made 
in  the  form  of  cocks,  with  their  tail  feathers  spread  up 
to  form  the  handles.  The  heads  have  to  be  removed 
for  drinking.  These  cups  were  bequeathed  by  William 
Cockayne,  in  1598.  Another  cup  is  in  the  form  of  a 
peacock,  walking  with  two  little  chicks  of  minute  pro- 


Gold  and  Silver 


45 


portions  on  either  side  of  the  parent  bird.  This  is 
inscribed,  “ The  gift  of  Mary  the  daughter  of  Richard 
Robinson,  and  wife  to  Thomas  Smith  and  James  Peacock, 
Skinners.”  Whether  the  good  lady  were  a bigamist 
or  took  her  husbands  in  rotation,  does  not  transpire. 

An  interesting  cup  is  owned  by  the  Vintners  in  London, 
called  the  Milkmaid.  The  figure  of  a milkmaid,  in  laced 
bodice,  holds  above  her  head  a small  cup  on  pivots,  so 
that  it  finds  its  level  when  the  figure  is  inverted,  as  is 
the  case  when  the  cup  is  used,  the  petticoat  of  the 
milkmaid  forming  the  real  goblet.  It  is  constructed  on 
the  same  principle  as  the  German  figures  of  court  ladies 
holding  up  cups,  which  are  often  seen  to-day,  made  on  the 
old  pattern.  The  cups  in  the  case  of  this  milkmaid 
are  both  filled  with  wine,  and  it  is  quite  difficult  to 
drink  from  the  larger  cup  without  spilling  from  the 
small  swinging  cup  which  is  then  below  the  other.  Every 
member  is  expected  to  perform  this  feat  as  a sort  of 
initiation.  It  dates  from  1658. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  Corporation  cups  is  at 
Norwich,  where  it  is  known  as  the  “ Petersen  ” cup. 
It  is  shaped  like  a very  thick  and  squat  chalice,  and 
around  its  top  is  a wide  border  of  decorative  lettering, 
bearing  the  inscription,  “ The  -|-most-J-  here  -|-  of. 
+ is  -f-  dunne  -f-  b y -|-  Peter  -J-  Peterson  This 

craftsman  was  a Norwich  silversmith  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  very  famous  in  his  day,  and  a remarkably 
chaste  designer  as  well.  A beautiful  ivory  cup  twelve 
inches  high,  set  in  silver  gilt,  called  the  Grace  Cup,  of 


46  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Thomas  a Becket,  is  inscribed  around  the  top  band, 
“ Vinum  tuum  bibe  cum  gaudio.”  It  has  a hall-mark 


THE  “MILKMAID  CUP 


of  a Lombardic  letter  H,  signifying  the  year  1445.  It 
is  decorated  by  cherubs,  roses,  thistles,  and  crosses, 
relieved  with  garnets  and  pearls.  On  another  flat  band 
is  the  inscription:  “ Sobrii  estote”  and  on  the  cover, 


Gold  and  Silver 


47 


in  Roman  capitals,  “ Ferare  God  .”  It  is  owned  by  the 
Howard  family,  of  Corby. 

Tankards  were  sometimes  made  of  such  crude 
materials  as  leather  (like  the  “ lether  bottel  ” of  his- 
tory), and  of  wood.  In  fact,  the  inventory  of  a certain 
small  church  in  the  year  1566  tells  of  a “penny  tank- 
ard of  wood,”  which  was  used  as  a “ holy  water 
stock.” 

An  extravagant  design,  of  a period  really  later  than 
we  are  supposed  to  deal  with  in  this  book,  is  a curious 
cup  at  Barber's  and  Surgeon's  Hall,  known  as  the 
Royal  Oak.  It  is  built  to  suggest  an  oak  tree,  — a 
naturalistic  trunk,  with  its  roots  visible,  supporting  the 
cup,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a semi-conventional  tree, 
covered  with  leaves,  detached  acorns  swinging  free  on 
rings  from  the  sides  at  intervals ! 

Richard  Redgrave  called  attention  to  some  of  the 
absurdities  of  the  exotic  work  of  his  day  in  England. 
“ Rachel  at  a well,  under  an  imitative  palm  tree,”  he 
remarks,  “ draws,  not  water,  but  ink;  a grotto  of 
oyster  shells  with  children  beside  it,  contains  ...  an 
ink  vessel;  the  milk  pail  on  a maiden's  head  contains, 
not  goat's  milk,  as  the  animal  by  her  side  would  lead 
you  to  suppose,  but  a taper!  ” 

One  great  secret  of  good  design  in  metal  is  to  avoid 
imitating  fragile  things  in  a strong  material.  The  stalk 
of  a flower  or  leaf,  for  instance,  if  made  to  do  duty  in 
silver  to  support  a heavy  cup  or  vase,  is  a very  dis- 
agreeable thing  to  contemplate ; if  the  article  were  really 


48  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


what  it  is  represented,  it  would  break  under  the  strain. 
While  there  should  be  no  deliberate  perversion  of  Na- 
ture’s forms,  there  should  be  no  naturalistic  imita- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  II 


JEWELRY  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES 

We  are  told  that  the  word  “ jewel  ” has  come  by 
degrees  from  Latin,  through  French,  to  its  present  form; 
it  commenced  as  a “ gaudium”  (joy),  and  progressed 
through  “ jouel ” and  “ joyau  ” to  the  familiar  word 
as  we  have  it. 

The  first  objects  to  be  made  in  the  form  of  personal 
adornment  were  necklaces:  this  may  be  easily  under- 
stood, for  in  certain  savage  lands  the  necklace  formed, 
and  still  forms,  the  chief  feature  in  feminine  attire. 
In  this  little  treatise,  however,  we  cannot  deal  with 
anything  so  primitive  or  so  early;  we  must  not  even 
take  time  to  consider  the  exquisite  Greek  and  Roman 
jewelry.  Amongst  the  earliest  mediaeval  jewels  we 
will  study  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Byzantine. 

Anglo-Saxon  and  Irish  jewelry  is  famous  for  delicate 
filigree,  fine  enamels,  and  flat  garnets  used  in  a very 
decorative  way.  Niello  was  also  employed  to  some 
extent.  It  is  easy,  in  looking  from  the  Bell  of  St.  Patrick 
to  the  Book  of  Kells,  to  see  how  the  illuminators  were 
influenced  by  the  goldsmiths  in  early  times,  — in  Celtic 
and  Anglo-Saxon  work. 


49 


50  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  earliest  forms  of  brooches  were  the  annular,  — 
that  is,  a long  pin  with  a hinged  ring  at  its  head  for 
ornament,  and  the  “ penannular,”  or  pin  with  a broken 
circle  at  its  head.  Through  the  opening  in  the  circle 
the  pin  returns,  and  then  with  a twist  of  the  ring,  it  is 
held  more  firmly  in  the  material.  Of  these  two  forms 
are  notable  examples  in  the  Arbutus  brooch  and  the 
celebrated  Tara  brooch.  The  Tara  brooch  is  a perfect 


museum  in  itself  of  the  jeweller’s  art.  It  is  ornamented 
with  enamel,  with  jewels  set  in  silver,  amber,  scroll  fili- 
gree, fine  chains,  Celtic  tracery,  moulded  glass  — nearly 
every  branch  of  the  art  is  represented  in  this  one  treasure, 
which  was  found  quite  by  accident  near  Drogheda,  in 
1850,  a landslide  having  exposed  the  buried  spot  where 
it  had  lain  for  centuries.  As  many  as  seventy-six 
different  kinds  of  workmanship  are  to  be  detected  on 
this  curious  relic. 

At  a great  Exhibition  at  Ironmonger’s  Hall  in  1861 


SAXON  BROOCH 


r 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


51 


there  was  shown  a leaden  fibula,  quite  a dainty  piece 
of  personal  ornament,  in  Anglo-Saxon  taste,  decorated 
with  a moulded  spiral  meander.  It  was  found  in  the 


THE  TARA  BROOCH 


Thames  in  1855,  and  there  are  only  three  other  similar 
brooches  of  lead  known  to  exist. 

Of  the  Celtic  brooches  Scott  speaks : 

“ • . . the  brooch  of  burning  gold 
That  clasps  the  chieftain’s  mantle  fold, 

Wrought  and  chased  with  rare  device, 

Studded  fair  with  gems  of  price.” 


52  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


One  of  the  most  remarkable  pieces  of  Celtic  jewelled 
work  is  the  bell  of  St.  Patrick,  which  measures  over 
ten  inches  in  height.  This  saint  is  associated  with 
several  bells:  one,  called  the  Broken  Bell  of  St.  Brigid, 
he  used  on  his  last  crusade  against  the  demons  of 
Ireland;  it  is  said  that  when  he  found  his  adversaries 
specially  unyielding,  he  flung  the  bell  with  all  his  might 
into  the  thickest  of  their  ranks,  so  that  they  fled  pre- 
cipitately into  the  sea,  leaving  the  island  free  from 
their  aggressions  for  seven  years,  seven  months,  and 
seven  days. 

One  of  St.  Patrick’s  bells  is  known,  in  Celtic,  as  the 
“ white  toned,”  while  another  is  called  the  “ black 
sounding.”  This  is  an  early  and  curious  instance  of 
the  sub-conscious  association  of  the  qualities  of  sound 
with  those  of  colour.  Viollet  le  Due  tells  how  a blind 
man  was  asked  if  he  knew  what  the  colour  red  was. 
He  replied,  “ Yes:  red  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.” 
And  the  great  architect  himself,  when  a child,  was 
carried  by  his  nurse  into  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame 
in  Paris,  where  he  cried  with  terror  because  he  fancied 
that  the  various  organ  notes  wThich  he  heard  were  being 
hurled  at  him  by  the  stained  glass  windows,  each  one 
represented  by  a different  colour  in  the  glass ! 

But  the  most  famous  bell  in  connection  with  St. 
Patrick  is  the  one  known  by  his  own  name  and  brought 
with  his  relics  by  Columbkille  only  sixty  years  after 
the  saint’s  death.  The  outer  case  is  an  exceedingly  rich 
example  of  Celtic  work.  On  a ground  of  brass,  fine  gold 


Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  pieces  of  Celtic  jewelled 
work  is  the  bell  of  St.  Patrick  which  measures  over 
ten  inches  in  height.  This  sail  w associated  with 
several  bells:  one,  called  the  Broken  Kell  of  St.  Brigid, 
he  used  on  his  last  crusade  against  the  demons  of 
Ireland;  it  is  said  that  when  he  found  his  mkersaries 
specially  unyielding,  he  flung  the  bell  with  all  bis  might 
into  the  thickest  of  their  ranks,  so  that  they  fled  pre- 
cipitately into  the  sea,  leaving  the  island  free  from 
their  aggressions  for  seven  years,  seven  months,  and 
seven  days. 

One  of  St.  Patrick’s  bells  is  known,  in  Celtic,  as  the 
“ white  toned,”  while  another  is  called  the  black 
sounding.”  This  is  an  early  and  curious  instance  of 
the  sub-conscious  OP  THEiffilifes  OJf  sound 

with  those  of  colour /^vicfl&t ^TWfe^tells  how  a blind 
man  was  asked  if  he  knew  what  the  colour  red  was 
He  replied,  “ Yes:  red  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.” 


And  the  great  architect  himself, 

when  a child,  was 

carried  by  his  nurse  into  the  Cat  hi 

edral  of  Notre  I tame 

i?i  Paris,  where  he  cried  with  term 

*r  because  he  fancied 

that  the  varmm  organ  note-  which 

i • being 

hurled  at  hen  by  the  stained  yim 

ach  one 

represent*  k ’ ; k met  v'-^nr  in 

the  glass! 

But  the  n.m*t  r m>  »»♦;*  Ml  in 

; ; ? with  St. 

Patrick  is  the  o-m  known  by  his  ow 

n name  * brought 

with  hi.s  relies  by  ' \ on 

jy  s i .v 1 . <irs  after 

the  saint’s  death.  The  outer  case  v. 

s an  ex<  - mngly  rich 

example  of  Celtic  work.  On  a grou 

■ d f.bra-  . 'me  gold 

I i 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


53 


and  silver  filigree  is  applied,  in  curious  interlaces  and 
knots,  and  it  is  set  with  several  jewels,  some  of  large 
size,  in  green,  blue,  and  dull  red.  In  the  front  are 
two  large  tallow-cut  Irish  diamonds,  and  a third  was 
apparently  set  in  a place  which  is  now  vacant.  On  the 
back  of  the  bell  appears  a Celtic  inscription  in  most 
decorative  lettering  all  about  the  edge;  the  literal 
translation  of  this  is:  “A  prayer  for  Donnell  O’Loch- 
lain,  through  whom  this  bell  shrine  was  made;  and  for 
Donnell,  the  successor  of  Patrick,  with  whom  it  was 
made;  and  for  Cahalan  O’Mulhollan,  the  keeper  of  the 
bell,  and  for  Cudilig  OTmmainen,  with  his  sons,  who 
covered  it.”  Donald  O’Lochlain  was  monarch  of  Ireland 
in  1083.  Donald  the  successor  of  Patrick  was  the  Abbot 
of  Armagh,  from  1091  to  1105.  The  others  were  evi- 
dently the  craftsmen  who  worked  on  the  shrine.  In 
many  interlaces,  especially  on  the  sides,  there  may  be 
traced  intricate  patterns  formed  of  serpents,  but  as 
nearly  all  Celtic  work  is  similarly  ornamented,  there 
is  probably  nothing  personal  in  their  use  in  connection 
with  the  relic  of  St.  Patrick!  Patrick  brought  quite  a 
bevy  of  workmen  into  Ireland  about  440:  some  were 
smiths,  Mac  Cechfc,  Laebhan,  and  Fontchan,  who  were 
turned  at  once  upon  making  of  bells,  while  some  other 
skilled  artificers,  Fairill  and  Tassach,  made  patens  and 
chalices.  St.  Bridget,  too,  had  a famous  goldsmith  in 
her  train,  one  Bishop  Coula. 

The  pectoral  cross  of  St.  Cuthbert  of  Lindisfarne  is 
now  to  be  seen  in  Durham.  It  was  buried  with  the 


54  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

saint,  and  was  discovered  with  his  body.  The  four  arms 
are  of  equal  length,  and  not  very  heavy  in  proportion. 
It  is  of  gold,  made  in  the  seventh  century,  and  is  set 
with  garnets,  a very  large  one  in  the  centre,  one  some- 
what smaller  at  the  ends  of  the  arms,  where  the  lines 
widen  considerably,  and  with  smaller  ones  continuously 
between. 

Among  the  many  jewels  which  decorated  the  shrine 
of  Thomas  a Becket  at  Canterbury  was  a stone  “ with 
an  angell  of  gold  poynting  thereunto,”  which  was  a 
gift  from  the  King  of  France,  who  had  had  it  “ made 
into  a ring  and  wore  it  on  his  thumb.”  Other  stones 
described  as  being  on  this  shrine  were  sumptuous,  the 
whole  being  damascened  with  gold  wire,  and  “ in  the 
midst  of  the  gold,  rings;  or  cameos  of  sculptured  agates, 
carnelians,  and  onyx  stones.”  A visitor  to  Canterbury 
in  1500  writes:  “ Everything  is  left  far  behind  by  a 

ruby  not  larger  than  a man’s  thumb  nail,  which  is  set 
to  the  right  of  the  altar.  The  church  is  rather  dark, 
and  when  we  went  to  see  it  the  sun  was  nearly  gone 
down,  and  the  weather  was  cloudy,  yet  we  saw  the  ruby 
as  well  as  if  it  had  been  in  my  hand.  They  say  it  was 
a gift  of  the  King  of  France.” 

Possessions  of  one  kind  were  often  converted  into 
another,  according  to  changing  fashions.  Philippa  of 
Lancaster  had  a gold  collar  made  “ out  of  two  bottles 
and  a turret,”  in  1380. 

Mediaeval  rosaries  were  generally  composed  of  beads 
of  coral  or  carnelian,  and  often  of  gold  and  pearls  as 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


55 


well.  Marco  Polo  tells  of  a unique  rosary  worn  by  the 
King  of  Malabar;  one  hundred  and  four  large  pearls, 
with  occasional  rubies  of  great  price,  composed  the 
string.  Marco  Polo  adds:  “ He  has  to  say  one  hundred 
and  four  prayers  to  his  idols  every  morning  and 
evening.” 

In  the  possession  of  the  Shah  of  Persia  is  a gold  casket 
studded  with  emeralds,  which  is  said  to  have  the  magic 
power  of  rendering  the  owner  invisible  as  long  as  he 
remains  celibate.  I fancy  that  this  is  a safe  claim,  for 
the  tradition  is  not  likely  to  be  put  to  the  proof  in  the 
case  of  a Shah!  Probably  'there  has  never  been  an 
opportunity  of  testing  the  miraculous  powers  of  the 
stones. 

The  inventory  of  Lord  Lisle  contains  many  interesting 
side  lights  on  the  jewelry  of  the  period:  “ a hawthorne 
of  gold,  with  twenty  diamonds;  ” “ a little  tower  of 
gold,”  and  “ a pair  of  beads  of  gold,  with  tassels.” 
Filigree  or  chain  work  was  termed  “ perry.”  In  old 
papers  such  as  inventories,  registers,  and  the  like,  there 
are  frequent  mentions  of  buttons  of  “ gold  and  perry;  ” 
in  1372  Aline  Gerbuge  received  “ one  little  circle  of 
gold  and  perry,  emeralds  and  balasses.”  Clasps  and 
brooches  were  used  much  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
They  were  often  called  “ ouches,”  and  were  usually  of 
jewelled  gold.  One,  an  image  of  St.  George,  was  given 
by  the  Black  Prince  to  John  of  Gaunt.  The  Duchess 
of  Bretagne  had  among  other  brooches  one  with  a 
white  griffin,  a balas  ruby  on  its  shoulder,  six  sapphires 


56  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


around  it,  and  then  six  balasses,  and  twelve  groups  of 
pearls  with  diamonds. 

Brooches  were  frequently  worn  by  being  stuck  in  the 
hat.  In  a curious  letter  from  James  I.  to  his  son,  the 
monarch  writes:  “ I send  for  your  wearing  the  Three 
Brethren”  (evidently  a group  of  three  stones)  “ . . . but 
newly  set . . . which  I wolde  wish  you  to  weare  alone  in 
your  hat,  with  a Littel  black  feather.”  To  his  favourite 
Buckingham  he  also  sends  a diamond,  saying  that  his 
son  will  lend  him  also  “ an  anker”  in  all  probability; 
but  he  adds : “ If  my  Babee  will  not  spare  the  anker 
from  his  Mistress,  he  may  well  lend  thee  his  round 
brooch  to  weare,  and  yett  he  shall  have  jewels  to  weare 
in  his  hat  for  three  grate  dayes.” 

In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  women 
wore  nets  in  their  hair,  composed  of  gold  threads  adorned 
with  pearls.  At  first  two  small  long  rolls  by  the  temples 
were  confined  in  these  nets:  later,  the  whole  back  hair 
was  gathered  into  a large  circular  arrangement.  These 
nets  were  called  frets  — “ a fret  of  pearls”  was  con- 
sidered a sufficient  legacy  for  a duchess  to  leave  to  her 
daughter. 

In  the  constant  resetting  and  changing  of  jewels, 
many  important  mediaeval  specimens,  not  to  mention 
exquisite  vessels  and  church  furniture,  were  melted 
down  and  done  over  by  Benvenuto  Cellini,  especially 
at  the  time  that  Pope  Clement  was  besieged  at  the 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo. 

Probably  the  most  colossal  jewel  of  ancient  times  was 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


57 


the  Peacock  Throne  of  Delhi.  It  was  in  the  form  of 
two  spread  tails  of  peacocks,  composed  entirely  of 
sapphires,  emeralds  and  topazes,  feather  by  feather  and 
eye  by  eye,  set  so  as  to  touch  each  other.  A parrot  of 
life  size  carved  from  a single  emerald,  stood  between  the 
peacocks. 

In  1161  the  throne  of  the  Emperor  in  Constantinople 
is  described  by  Benjamin  of  Tudela:  “Of  gold  orna- 
mented with  precious  stones.  A golden  crown  hangs 
over  it,  suspended  on  a chain  of  the  same  material,  the 
length  of  which  exactly  admits  the  Emperor  to  sit 
under  it.  Tne  crown  is  ornamented  with  precious  stones 
of  inestimable  value.  Such  is  the  lustre  of  these  dia- 
monds that  even  without  any  other  light,  they  illumine 
the  room  in  which  they  are  kept.” 

The  greatest  mediaeval  jeweller  was  St.  Eloi  of  Limoges. 
His  history  is  an  interesting  one,  and  his  achievement 
and  rise  in  life  was  very  remarkable  in  the  period  in 
which  he  lived.  Eloi  was  a workman  in  Limoges,  as  a 
youth,  under  the  famous  Abbo,  in  the  sixth  century; 
there  he  learned  the  craft  of  a goldsmith.  He  was  such 
a splendid  artisan  that  he  soon  received  commissions 
for  extensive  works  on  his  own  account.  King  Clothaire 
II.  ordered  from  him  a golden  throne,  and  supplied 
the  gold  which  was  to  be  used.  To  the  astonishment  of 
all,  Eloi  presented  the  king  with  two  golden  thrones 
(although  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  a king  would 
do  with  duplicate  thrones!),  and  immediately  it  was 
noised  abroad  that  the  goldsmith  Eloi  was  possessed 


58  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


of  miraculous  powers,  since,  out  of  gold  sufficient  for 
one  throne,  he  had  constructed  two.  People  of  a more 
practical  turn  found  out  that  Eloi  had  learned  the  art  of 
alloying  the  gold,  so  as  to  make  it  do  double  duty. 

A great  many  examples  of  St.  Eloi’s  work  might  have 
been  seen  in  France  until  the  Revolution  in  1792, 
especially  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis.  A ring  made  by 
him,  with  which  St.  Godiberte  was  married  to  Christ, 
according  to  the  custom  of  mediaeval  saints,  was  pre- 
served at  Noyon  until  1793,  when  it  disappeared  in  the 
Revolution.  The  Chronicle  says  of  Eloi:  “ He  made  for 
the  king  a great  numer  of  gold  vesses  enriched  with 
precious  stones,  and  he  worked  incessantly,  seated  with 
his  servant  Thillo,  a Saxon  by  birth,  who  followed  the 
lessons  of  his  master.”  St.  Eloi  founded  two  institutions 
for  goldsmithing : one  for  the  production  of  domestic 
and  secular  plate,  and  the  other  for  ecclesiastical  work 
exclusively,  so  that  no  worker  in  profane  lines  should 
handle  the  sacred  vessels.  The  secular  branch  was 
situated  near  the  dwelling  of  Eloi,  in  the  Cite  itself,  and 
was  known  as  “ St.  Eloi’s  Enclosure.”  When  a fire 
burned  them  out  of  house  and  shelter,  they  removed 
to  a suburban  quarter,  which  soon  became  known  in 
its  turn,  as  the  “ Cloture  St.  Eloi.”  The  religious  branch 
of  the  establishment  was  presided  over  by  the  aforesaid 
Thillo,  and  was  the  Abbey  of  Solignac,  near  Limoges. 
This  school  was  inaugurated  in  631. 

While  Eloi  was  working  at  the  court  of  King  Clothaire 
II.,  St.  Ouen  was  there  as  well.  The  two  youths  struck 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


59 


up  a close  friendship,  and  afterwards  Ouen  became  his 
biographer.  His  description  of  Eloi’s  personal  appear- 
ance is  worth  quoting,  to  show  the  sort  of  figure  a 
mediaeval  saint  sometimes  cut  before  canonization. 
“ He  was  tall,  with  a ruddy  face,  his  hair  and  beard 
curly.  His  hands  well  made,  and  his  fingers  long,  his 
face  full  of  angelic  sweetness.  ...  At  first  he  wore 
habits  covered  with  pearls  and  precious  stones;  he  had 
also  belts  sewn  with  pearls.  His  dress  was  of  linen 
encrusted  with  gold,  and  the  edges  of  his  tunic  trimmed 
with  gold  embroidery.  Indeed,  his  clothing  was  very 
costly,  and  some  of  his  dresses  were  of  silk.  Such  was 
his  exterior  in  his  first  period  at  court,  and  he  dressed 
thus  to  avoid  singularity;  but  under  this  garment  he 
wore  a rough  sack  cloth,  and  later  on,  he  disposed  of 
all  his  ornaments  to  relieve  the  distressed ; and  he  might 
be  seen  with  only  a cord  round  his  waist  and  common 
clothes.  Sometimes  the  king,  seeing  him  thus  divested 
of  his  rich  clothing,  would  take  off  his  own  cloak  and 
girdle  and  give  them  to  him,  saying:  1 It  is  not  suitable 
that  those  who  dwell  for  the  world  should  be  richly 
clad,  and  that  those  who  despoil  themselves  for  Christ 
should  be  without  glory/  ” 

Among  the  numerous  virtues  of  St.  Eloi  was  that  of 
a consistent  carrying  out  of  his  real  beliefs  and  theories, 
whether  men  might  consider  him  quixotic  or  not.  He 
was  strongly  opposed  to  the  institution  of  slavery.  In 
those  days  it  would  have  been  futile  to  preach  actual 
emancipation.  The  times  were  not  ripe.  But  St.  Eloi 


60  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


did  all  that  he  could  for  the  cause  of  freedom  by  in- 
vesting most  of  his  money  in  slaves,  and  then  setting 
them  at  liberty.  Sometimes  he  would  “ corner  ” a whole 
slave  market,  buying  as  many  as  thirty  to  a hundred 
at  a time.  Some  of  these  manumitted  persons  became 
his  own  faithful  followers:  some  entered  the  religious 
life,  and  others  devoted  their  talents  to  their  benefactor, 
and  worked  in  his  studios  for  the  furthering  of  art  in 
the  Church. 

He  once  played  a trick  upon  the  king.  He  requested 
the  gift  of  a town,  in  order,  as  he  explained,  that  he 
might  there  build  a ladder  by  which  they  might  both 
reach  heaven.  The  king,  in  the  rather  credulous 
fashion  of  the  times,  granted  his  request,  and  waited 
to  see  the  ladder.  St.  Eloi  promptly  built  a monastery. 
If  the  monarch  did  not  choose  to  avail  himself  of  this 
species  of  ladder,  — surely  it  was  no  fault  of  the  builder! 

St.  Ouen  and  St.  Eloi  were  consecrated  bishops  on 
the  same  day,  May  14,  St.  Ouen  to  the  Bishopric  of 
Rouen,  and  Eloi  to  the  See  of  Noyon.  He  made  a great 
hunt  for  the  body  of  St.  Quentin,  which  had  been  unfor- 
tunately mislaid,  having  been  buried  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Noyon;  he  turned  up  every  available  spot  of 
ground  around,  within  and  beneath  the  church,  until  he 
found  a skeleton  in  a tomb,  with  some  iron  nails.  This 
he  proclaimed  to  be  the  sacred  body,  for  the  legend 
was  that  St.  Quentin  had  been  martyred  by  having  nails 
driven  into  his  head!  Although  it  was  quite  evident 
to  others  that  these  were  coffin  nails,  still  St.  Eloi 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


61 


insisted  upon  regarding  his  discovery  as  genuine,  and 
they  began  diligently  to  dismember  the  remains  for 
distribution  among  the  churches.  As  they  were  pulling 
one  of  the  teeth,  a drop  of  blood  was  seen  to  follow  it, 
which  miracle  was  hailed  by  St.  Eloi  as  the  one  proof 
wanting.  Eloi  had  the  genuine  artistic  temperament 
and  his  religious  zeal  was  much  influenced  by  his  aesthetic 
nature.  He  once  preached  an  excellent  sermon,  still 
preserved,  against  superstition.  He  inveighed  par- 
ticularly against  the  use  of  charms  and  incantations. 
But  he  had  his  own  little  streak  of  superstition  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  he  fulminated  against  it.  When  he 
had  committed  some  fault,  after  confession,  he  used 
to  hang  bags  of  relics  in  his  room,  and  watch  them  for  a 
sign  of  forgiveness.  When  one  of  these  would  turn  oily, 
or  begin  to  affect  the  surrounding  atmosphere  peculiarly, 
he  would  consider  it  a sign  of  the  forgiveness  of  heaven. 
It  seems  to  us  to-day  as  if  he  might  have  looked  to  his 
own  relic  bags  before  condemning  the  ignorant. 

St.  Eloi  died  in  659,  and  was  himself  distributed  to 
the  faithful  in  quite  a wholesale  way.  One  arm  is  in 
Paris.  He  was  canonized  both  for  his  holy  life  and  for 
his  great  zeal  in  art.  He  was  buried  in  a silver  coffin 
adorned  with  gold,  and  his  tomb  was  said  to  work 
miracles  like  the  shrine  of  Becket.  Indeed,  Becket 
himself  was  pretty  dressy  in  the  matter  of  jewels;  when 
he  travelled  to  Paris,  the  simple  Frenchmen  exclaimed: 
“ What  a wonderful  personage  the  King  of  England 
must  be,  if  his  chancellor  can  travel  in  such  state!  ” 


62  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


There  are  various  legends  about  St.  Eloi.  It  is  told 
that  a certain  horse  once  behaved  in  a very  obstreperous 
way  while  being  shod;  St.  Eloi  calmly  cut  off  the  animal's 
leg,  and  fixed  the  shoe  quietly  in  position,  and  then 
replaced  the  leg,  which  grew  into  place  again  immedi- 
ately, to  the  pardonable  astonishment  of  all  beholders, 
not  to  mention  the  horse. 

St.  Eloi  was  also  employed  to  coin  the  currency  of 
Dagobert  and  Clovis  II.,  and  examples  of  these  coins 
may  now  be  seen,  as  authentic  records  of  the  style  of 
his  work.  A century  after  his  death  the  monasteries 
which  he  had  founded  were  still  in  operation,  and 
Charlemagne’s  crown  and  sword  are  very  possibly  the 
result  of  St.  Eloi’s  teachings  to  his  followers. 

While  the  monasteries  undoubtedly  controlled  most 
of  the  art  education  of  the  early  middle  ages,  there  were 
also  laymen  who  devoted  themselves  to  these  pursuits. 
John  de  Garlande,  a famous  teacher  in  the  University 
of  Paris,  wrote,  in  the  eleventh  century,  a “ Dictiona- 
rius  ” dealing  with  various  arts.  In  this  interesting 
work  he  describes  the  trades  of  the  moneyers  (who 
controlled  the  mint),  the  coining  of  gold  and  silver  into 
currency  (for  the  making  of  coin  in  those  days  was 
permitted  by  individuals),  the  clasp  makers,  the  makers 
of  cups  or  hanaps,  jewellers  and  harness  makers,  and 
other  artificers.,  John  de  Garlande  was  English,  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  Oxford.  In  the  early  thirteenth  century  he 
became  associated  with  the  University,  and  when 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


63 


Simon  de  Montfort  was  slain  in  1218,  at  Toulouse,  John 
was  at  the  University  of  Toulouse,  where  he  was  made 
a professor,  and  stayed  three  years,  returning  then  to 
Paris.  He  died  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  He  was  celebrated  chiefly  for  his  Dictionarius, 
a work  on  the  various  arts  and  crafts  of  France,  and 
for  a poem,  “ De  Triumphis  Ecclesise.” 

During  the  Middle  Ages  votive  crowns  were  often 
presented  to  churches;  among  these  a few  are  specially 
famous.  The  crowns,  studded  with  jewels,  were  sus- 
pended before  the  altar  by  jewelled  chains,  and  often 
a sort  of  fringe  of  jewelled  letters  was  hung  from  the 
rim,  forming  an  inscription.  The  votive  crown  of 
King  Suinthila,  in  Madrid,  is  among  the  most  ornate  of 
these.  It  is  the  finest  specimen  in  the  noted  “ Treasure 
of  Guerrazzar,”  which  was  discovered  by  peasants 
turning  up  the  soil  near  Toledo;  the  crowns,  of  which 
there  were  many,  date  from  about  the  seventh  century, 
and  are  sumptuous  with  precious  stones.  The  workman- 
ship is  not  that  of  a barbarous  nation,  though  it  has  the 
fascinating  irregularities  of  the  Byzantine  style. 

Of  the  delightful  work  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
there  are  scarcely  any  examples  in  Italy.  The  so-called 
Iron  Crown  of  Monza  is  one  of  the  few  early  Lombard 
treasures.  This  crown  has  within  it  a narrow  band  of 
iron,  said  to  be  a nail  of  the  True  Cross;  but  the  crown, 
as  it  meets  the  eye,  is  anything  but  iron,  being  one  of 
the  most  superb  specimens  of  jewelled  golden  work- 
manship, as  fine  as  those  in  the  Treasure  of  Guerrazzar. 


64  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


THE  TREASURE  OF  GUERRAZZAR 


The  crown  of  King  Alfred  the  Great  is  mentioned  in 
an  old  inventory  as  being  of  “ gould  wire  worke,  sett 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


65 


with  slight  stones,  and  two  little  bells.”  A diadem  is 
described  by  William  of  Malmsbury,  “ so  precious  with 
jewels,  that  the  splendour  . . . threw  sparks  of  light 
so  strongly  on  the  beholder,  that  the  more  steadfastly 
any  person  endeavoured  to  gaze,  so  much  the  more  he 
was  dazzled,  and  compelled  to  avert  the  eyes!  ” In 
1382  a circlet  crown  was  purchased  for  Queen  Anne  of 
Bohemia,  being  set  with  a large  sapphire,  a balas,  and 
four  large  pearls  with  a diamond  in  the  centre. 

The  Cathedral  at  Amiens  owns  what  is  supposed  to 
be  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist,  enshrined  in  a gilt  cup 
of  silver,  and  with  bands  of  jewelled  work.  The  head  is 
set  upon  a platter  of  gilded  and  jewelled  silver,  covered 
with  a disc  of  rock  crystal.  The  whole,  , though  ancient, 
is  enclosed  in  a modern  shrine.  The  legend  of  the 
preservation  of  the  Baptists  head  is  that  Herodias, 
afraid  that  the  saint  might  be  miraculously  restored  to 
life  if  his  head  and  body  were  laid  in  the  same  grave, 
decided  to  hide  the  head  until  this  danger  was  past. 
Furtively,  she  concealed  the  relic  for  a time,  and  then 
it  was  buried  in  Herod’s  palace.  It  was  there  oppor- 
tunely discovered  by  some  monks  in  the  fourth  century. 
This  “ invention  of  the  head”  (the  word  being  inter- 
preted according  to  the  credulity  of  the  reader)  resulted 
in  its  removal  to  Emesa,  where  it  was  exhibited  in  453. 
In  753  Marcellus,  the  Abbot  of  Emesa,  had  a vision  by 
means  of  which  he  re-discovered  (or  re-invented) 
the  head,  which  had  in  some  way  been  lost  sight  of. 
Following  the  guidance  of  his  dream,  he  repaired  to  a 


66  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


grotto,  and  proceeded  to  exhume  the  long-suffering 
relic.  After  many  other  similar  and  rather  disconnected 
episodes,  it  finally  came  into  possession  of  the  Bishop 
of  Amiens  in  1206. 

A great  calamity  in  early  times  was  the  loss  of  all  the 
valuables  of  King  John  of  England.  Between  Lincoln- 
shire and  Norfolk  the  royal  cortege  was  crossing  the 
Wash:  the  jewels  were  all  swept  away.  Crown  and  all 
were  thus  lost,  in  1216. 

Several  crowns  have  been  through  vicissitudes. 
When  Richard  III.  died,  on  Bos  worth  Field,  his  crown 
was  secured  by  a soldier  and  hidden  in  a bush.  Sir 
Reginald  de  Bray  discovered  it,  and  restored  it  to  its 
rightful  place.  But  to  balance  such  cases  several  of 
the  queens  have  brought  to  the  national  treasury  their 
own  crowns.  In  1340  Edward  III.  pawned  even  the 
queen’s  jewels  to  raise  money  for  fighting  France. 

The  same  inventory  makes  mention  of  certain  treasures 
deposited  at  Westminster:  the  values  are  attached  to 
each  of  these,  crowns,  plates,  bracelets,  and  so  forth. 
Also,  with  commendable  zeal,  a list  was  kept  of  other 
articles  stored  in  an  iron  chest,  among  which  are  the 
items,  “ one  liver  coloured  silk  robe,  very  old,  and 
worth  nothing,”  and  “ an  old  combe  of  home,  worth 
nothing.”  A frivolous  scene  is  described  by  Wood, 
when  the  notorious  Republican,  Marten,  had  access  to 
the  treasure  stored  in  Westminster.  Some  of  the  wits 
of  the  period  assembled  in  the  treasury,  and  took  out 
of  the  iron  chest  several  of  its  jewels,  a crown,  sceptre, 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


67 


and  robes ; these  they  put  upon  the  merry  poet,  George 
Withers,  “ who,  being  thus  crowned  and  royally  arrayed, 
first  inarched  about  the  room  with  a stately  gait,  and 
afterwards,  with  a thousand  ridiculous  and  apish  actions, 
exposed  the  sacred  ornaments  to  contempt  and  laugh- 
ter.” No  doubt  the  “ olde  comb  ” played  a suitable 
part  in  these  pranks,  — perhaps  it  may  even  have 
served  as  orchestra. 

One  Sir  Henry  Mildmay,  in  1649,  was  responsible  for 
dreadful  vandalism,  under  the  Puritan  regime.  Among 
other  acts  which  he  countenanced  was  the  destruction 
and  sale  of  the  wonderful  Crown  of  King  Alfred,  to 
which  allusion  has  just  been  made.  In  the  Will  of 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  in  1650,  is  this  clause  showing 
how  unpopular  Sir  Henry  had  become:  “Because  I 

threatened  Sir  Henry  Mildmay,  but  did  not  beat  him, 
I give  £50  to  the  footman  who  cudgelled  him.  Item, 
my  will  is  that  the  said  Sir  Harry  shall  not  meddle  with 
my  jewels.  I knew  him  . . . when  he  handled  the 
Crown  jewels,  . . . for  which  reason  I now  name  him 
the  Knave  of  Diamonds.” 

Jewelled  arms  and  trappings  became  very  rich  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  Pius  II.  writes  of  the  German 
armour:  “ Wliat  shall  I say  of  the  neck  chains  of  the 
men,  and  the  bridles  of  the  horses,  which  are  made  of 
the  purest  gold;  and  of  the  spears  and  scabbards  which 
are  covered  with  jewels?  ” Spurs  were  also  set  with 
jewels,  and  often  damascened  with  gold,  and  orna- 
mented with  appropriate  mottoes. 


68  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


An  inventory  of  the  jewelled  cups  and  reliquaries  of 
Queen  Jeanne  of  Navarre,  about  1570,  reads  like  a 
museum.  She  had  various  gold  and  jewelled  dishes  for 
banquets;  one  jewel  is  described  as  “ Item,  a demoiselle 
of  gold,  represented  as  riding  upon  a horse,  of  mother 
of  pearl,  standing  upon  a platform  of  gold,  enriched 
with  ten  rubies,  six  turquoises  and  three  fine  pearls.” 
Another  item  is,  “A  fine  rock  crystal  set  in  gold,  en- 
riched with  three  rubies,  three  emeralds,  and  a large 
sapphire,  set  transparently,  the  whole  suspended  from 
a small  gold  chain.” 

It  is  time  now  to  speak  of  the  actual  precious  stones 
themselves,  which  apart  from  their  various  settings  are, 
after  all,  the  real  jewels.  According  to  Cellini  there 
are  only  four  precious  stones:  he  says  they  are  made 
“ by  the  four  elements,”  ruby  by  fire,  sapphire  by  air, 
emerald  by  earth,  and  diamond  by  water.  It  irritated 
him  to  have  any  one  claim  others  as  precious  stones. 
“ I have  a thing  or  two  to  say,”  he  remarks,  “ in  order 
not  to  scandalize  a certain  class  of  men  who  call  them- 
selves jewellers,  but  may  be  better  likened  to  hucksters, 
or  linen  drapers,  pawn  brokers,  or  grocers  . . . with  a 
maximum  of  credit  and  a minimum  of  brains  . . . these 
dunderheads  . . . wag  their  arrogant  tongues  at  me  and 
cry,  1 How  about  the  chrysophrase,  or  the  jacynth,  how 
about  the  aqua  marine,  nay  more,  how  about  the 
garnet,  the  vermeil,  the  crysolite,  the  plasura,  the 
amethyst?  Ain’t  these  all  stones  and  ail  different?  9 
Yes,  and  why  the  devil  don’t  you  add  pearls,  too,  among 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


69 


the  jewels,  ain't  they  fish  bones?  ” Thus  he  classes 
the  stones  together,  adding  that  the  balas,  though 
light  in  colour,  is  a ruby,  and  the  topaz  a sapphire. 
“ It  is  of  the  same  hardness,  and  though  of  a different 
colour,  must  be  classified  with  the  sapphire : what  better 
classification  do  you  want?  hasn't  the  air  got  its  sun?  " 

Cellini  always  set  the  coloured  stones  in  a bezel  or 
closed  box  of  gold,  with  a foil  behind  them.  He  tells 
an  amusing  story  of  a ruby  which  he  once  set  on  a bit  of 
frayed  silk  instead  of  on  the  customary  foil.  The  result 
happened  to  be  most  brilliant.  The  jewellers  asked  him 
what  kind  of  foil  he  had  used,  and  he  replied  that  he 
had  employed  no  foil.  Then  they  exclaimed  that  he 
must  have  tinted  it,  which  was  against  all  laws  of 
jewelry.  Again  Benvenuto  swore  that  he  had  neither 
used  foil,  nor  had  he  done  anything  forbidden  or  unpro- 
fessional to  the  stone.  “ At  this  the  jeweller  got  a little 
nasty,  and  used  strong  language,"  says  Cellini.  They 
then  offered  to  pay  well  for  the  information  if  Cellini 
would  inform  them  by  what  means  he  had  obtained  so 
remarkably  a lustre.  Benvenuto,  expressing  himself 
indifferent  to  pay,  but  “ much  honoured  in  thus  being 
able  to  teach  his  teachers,"  opened  the  setting  and 
displayed  his  secret,  and  all  parted  excellent  friends. 

Even  so  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  the  jewellers 
of  Paris  had  become  notorious  for  producing  artificial 
jewels.  Among  their  laws  was  one  which  stipulated 
that  “ the  jeweller  was  not  to  dye  the  amethyst,  or 
other  false  stones,  nor  mount  them  in  gold  leaf  nor  other 


70  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


colour,  nor  mix  them  with  rubies,  emeralds,  or  other 
precious  stones,  except  as  a crystal  simply  without 
mounting  or  dyeing.” 

One  day  Cellini  had  found  a ruby  which  he  believed 
to  be  set  dishonestly,  that  is,  a very  pale  stone  with  a 
thick  coating  of  dragon’s  blood  smeared  on  its  back. 
When  he  took  it  to  some  of  his  favourite  “ dunderheads,” 
they  were  sure  that  he  was  mistaken,  saying  that  it  had 
been  set  by  a noted  jeweller,  and  could  not  be  an  imposi- 
tion. So  Benvenuto  immediately  removed  the  stone 
from  its  setting,  thereby  exposing  the  fraud.  “ Then 
might  that  ruby  have  been  likened  to  the  crow  which 
tricked  itself  out  in  the  feathers  of  the  peacock,”  observes 
Cellini,  adding  that  he  advised  these  “ old  fossils  in  the 
art  ” to  provide  themselves  with  better  eyes  than  they 
then  wore.  “ I could  not  resist  saying  this,”  chuckles 
Benvenuto,  “ because  all  three  of  them  wore  great  gig- 
lamps  on  their  noses;  whereupon  they  all  three  gasped 
at  each  other,  shrugged  their  shoulders,  and  with  God’s 
blessing,  made  off.”  Cellini  tells  of  a Milanese  jeweller 
who  concocted  a great  emerald,  by  applying  a very  thin 
layer  of  the  real  stone  upon  a large  bit  of  green  glass: 
he  says  that  the  King  of  England  bought  it,  and  that  the 
fraud  was  not  discovered  for  many  years. 

A commission  was  once  given  Cellini  to  make  a 
magnificent  crucifix  for  a gift  from  the  Pope  to  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  but,  as  he  expresses  it,  “ I was  hindered  from 
finishing  it  by  certain  beasts  who  had  the  vantage  of 
the  Pope’s  ear,”  but  when  these  evil  whisperers  had  so 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


71 


“ gammoned  the  Pope,”  that  he  was  dissuaded  from  the 
crucifix,  the  Pope  ordered  Cellini  to  make  a magnificent 
Breviary  instead,  so  that  the  “ job  ” still  remained  in 
his  hands. 

Giovanni  Pisano  made  some  translucid  enamels  for 
the  decorations  of  the  high  altar  in  Florence,  and  also  a 
jewelled  clasp  to  embellish  the  robe  of  a statue  of  the 
Virgin. 

Ghiberti  was  not  above  turning  his  attention  to  gold- 
smithing,  and  in  1428  made  a seal  for  Giovanni  de 
Medici,  a cope-button  and  mitre  for  Pope  Martin  V., 
and  a gold  mitre  with  precious  stones  weighing  five  and 
a half  pounds,  for  Pope  Eugene  IV. 

Diamonds  were  originally  cut  two  at  a time,  one 
cutting  the  other,  whence  has  sprung  the  adage,  “ dia- 
mond cut  diamond.”  Cutting  in  facets  was  thus  the 
natural  treatment  of  this  gem.  The  practise  originated 
in  India.  Two  diamonds  rubbing  against  each  other 
systematically  will  in  time  form  a facet  on  each.  In 
1475  it  was  discovered  by  Louis  de  Berghem  that 
diamonds  could  be  cut  by  their  own  dust. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  in  connection  with  the  Kohi- 
noor  that  in  India  there  had  always  been  a legend  that 
its  owner  should  be  the  ruler  of  India.  Probably  the 
ancient  Hindoos  among  whom  this  legend  developed 
would  be  astonished  to  know  that,  although  the  great 
stone  is  now  the  property  of  the  English,  the  tradition 
is  still  unbroken ! 

Marco  Polo  alludes  to  the  treasures  brought  from  the 


72  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Isle  of  Ormus,  as  “ spices,  pearls,  precious  stones,  cloth 
of  gold  and  silver,  elephant’s  teeth,  and  all  other  precious 
things  from  India.”  In  Balaxiam  he  says  are  found 
“ ballasses  and  other  precious  stones  of  great  value. 
No  man,  on  pain  of  death,  dare  either  dig  such  stones 
or  carry  them  out  of  the  country,  for  all  those  stones 
are  the  King’s.  Other  mountains  also  in  this  province 
yield  stones  called  lapis  lazuli,  whereof  the  best  azure  is 
made.  The  like  is  not  found  in  the  world.  These  mines 
also  yield  silver,  brass,  and  lead.”  He  speaks  of  the 
natives  as  wearing  gold  and  silver  earrings,  “ with  pearls 
and  other  stones  artificially  wrought  in  them.”  In  a 
certain  river,  too,  are  found  jasper  and  chalcedons. 

Marco  Polo’s  account  of  how  diamonds  are  obtained 
is  ingenuous  in  its  reckless  defiance  of  fact.  He  says 
that  in  the  mountains  “ there  are  certain  great  deep 
valleys  to  the  bottom  of  which  there  is  no  access. 
Wherefore  the  men  who  go  in  search  of  the  diamonds 
take  with  them  pieces  of  meat,”  which  they  throw  into 
this  deep  valley.  He  relates  that  the  eagles,  when  they 
see  these  pieces  of  meat,  fly  down  and  get  them,  and 
when  they  return,  they  settle  on  the  higher  rocks,  when 
the  men  raise  a shout,  and  drive  them  off.  After  the 
eagles  have  thus  been  driven  away,  “ the  men  recover 
the  pieces  of  meat,  and  find  them  full  of  diamonds, 
which  have  stuck  to  them.  “ For  the  abundance  of 
diamonds  down  in  the  depths,”  continues  Marco  Polo, 
naively  “ is  astonishing;  but  nobody  can  get  down,  and 
if  one  could,  it  would  be  only  to  be  incontinently  de- 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


73 


voured  by  the  serpents  which  are  so  rife  there.”  A fur- 
ther account  proceeds  thus:  “ The  diamonds  are  so 

scattered  and  dispersed  in  the  earth,  and  lie  so  thin, 
that  in  the  most  plentiful  mines  it  is  rare  to  find  one 
in  digging;  . . . they  are  frequently  enclosed  in  clods, 
. . . some  . . . have  the  earth  so  fixed  about  them 
that  till  they  grind  them  on  a rough  stone  with  sand* 
they  cannot  move  it  sufficiently  to  discover  they  are 
transparent  or  ...  to  know  them  from  other  stones. 
At  the  first  opening  of  the  mine,  the  unskilful  labourers 
sometimes,  to  try  what  they  have  found,  lay  them  on 
a great  stone,  and,  striking  them  one  with  another,  to 
their  costly  experience,  discover  that  they  have  broken 
a diamond.  . . . They  fill  a cistern  with  water,  soaking 
therein  as  much  of  the  earth  they  dig  out  of  the  mine 
as  it  can  hold  at  one  time,  breaking  the  clods,  picking 
out  the  great  stones,  and  stirring  it  with  shovels  . . . 
then  they  open  a vent,  letting  out  the  foul  water,  and 
supply  it  with  clean,  till  the  earthy  substance  be  all 
washed  away  , and  only  the  gravelly  one  remains  at  the 
bottom.”  A process  of  sifting  and  drying  is  then  de- 
scribed, and  the  gravel  is  all  spread  out  to  be  examined, 
“ they  never  examine  the  stuff  they  have  washed  but 
between  the  hours  of  ten  and  three,  lest  any  cloud,  by 
interposing,  intercept  the  brisk  beams  of  the  sun,  which 
they  hold  very  necessary  to  assist  them  in  their  search, 
the  diamonds  constantly  reflecting  them  when  they 
shine  on  them,  rendering  themselves  thereby  the  more 
conspicuous.” 


74  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  earliest  diamond-cutter  is  frequently  mentioned 
as  Louis  de  Berquem  de  Bruges,  in  1476.  But  Laborde 
finds  earlier  records  of  the  art  of  cutting  this  gem : there 
was  in  Paris  a diamond-cutter  named  Herman,  in  1407. 
The  diamond  cutters  of  Paris  were  quite  numerous  in 
that  year,  and  lived  in  a special  district  known  as  “ la 
Courarie,  where  reside  the  workers  in  diamonds  and 
other  stones.” 

Finger  rings  almost  deserve  a history  to  themselves, 
for  their  forms  and  styles  are  legion.  Rings  were  often 
made  of  glass  in  the  eleventh  century.  Theophilus  tells 
in  a graphic  and  interesting  manner  how  they  were 
constructed.  He  recommends  the  use  of  a bar  of  iron, 
as  thick  as  one’s  finger,  set  in  a wooden  handle,  “as  a 
lance  is  joined  in  its  pike.”  There  should  also  be  a large 
piece  of  wood,  at  the  worker’s  right  hand,  “ the  thickness 
of  an  arm,  dug  into  the  ground,  and  reaching  to  the 
top  of  the  window.”  On  the  left  of  the  furnace  a little 
clay  trench  is  to  be  provided.  “ Then,  the  glass  being 
cooked,”  one  is  admonished  to  take  the  little  iron  in 
the  wooden  handle,  dip  it  into  the  molten  glass,  and 
pick  up  a small  portion,  and  “ prick  it  into  the  wood, 
that  the  glass  may  be  pierced  through,  and  instantly 
warm  it  in  the  flame,  and  strike  it  twice  upon  the  wood, 
that  the  glass  may  be  dilated,  and  with  quickness 
revolve  your  hand  with  the  same  iron;  ” when  the  ring 
is  thus  formed,  it  is  to  be  quickly  thrown  into  the 
trench.  Theophilus  adds,  “ If  you  wish  to  vary  your 
rings  with  other  colours  . . . take  . . . glass  of  another 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


75 


colour,  surrounding  the  glass  of  the  ring  with  it  in  the 
manner  of  a thread  . . . you  can  also  place  upon  the 
ring  glass  of  another  kind,  as  a gem,  and  warm  it  in  the 
fire  that  it  may  adhere.”  One  can  almost  see  these  rings 
from  this  accurate  description  of  their  manufacture. 

The  old  Coronation  Ring,  “ the  wedding  ring  of  Eng- 
land,” was  a gold  ring  with  a single  fine  balas  ruby; 
the  pious  tradition  had  it  that  this  ring  was  given  to 
Edward  the  Confessor  by  a beggar,  who  was  really  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  in  masquerade!  The  palace  where 
this  unique  event  occurred  was  thereupon  named 
Have-ring-at-Bower.  The  Stuart  kings  all  wore  this 
ring  and  until  it  came  to  George  IV.,  with  other  Stuart 
bequests,  it  never  left  the  royal  Stuart  line. 

Edward  I.  o^yned  a sapphire  ring  made  by  St.  Dunstan. 
Dunstan  was  an  industrious  art  spirit,  being  reported 
by  William  of  Malmsbury  as  “ taking  great  delight  in 
music,  painting,  and  engraving.”  In  the  “ Ancren 
Riwle,”  a book  of  directions  for  the  cloistered  life  of 
women,  nuns  are  forbidden  to  wear  u ne  ring  ne  brooche,” 
and  to  deny  themselves  other  personal  adornments. 

Archbishops  seem  to  have  possessed  numerous  rings 
in  ancient  times.  In  the  romance  of  “ Sir  Degrevant  ” 
a couplet  alludes  to : 

“ Archbishops  with  rings 
More  than  fifteen.” 

Episcopal  rings  were  originally  made  of  sapphires, 
said  to  be  typical  of  the  cold  austerity  of  the  life  of  the 
wearer.  Later,  however,  the  carbuncle  became  a 


76  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


favourite,  which  was  supposed  to  suggest  fiery  zeal 
for  the  faith.  Perhaps  the  compromise  of  the  cus- 
tomary amethyst,  which  is  now  most  popularly  used, 
for  Episcopal  rings,  being  a combination  of  the  blue 
and  the  red,  may  typify  a blending  of  more  human 
qualities ! 

In  an  old  will  of  1529,  a ring  was  left  as  a bequest  to 


HEBREW  RING 


a relative,  described  as  “ a table  diamond  set  with 
black  aniell,  meate  for  my  little  finger.” 

The  accompanying  illustration  represents  a Hebrew 
ring,  surmounted  by  a little  mosque,  and  having  the 
inscription  “ Mazul  Toub  ” (God  be  with  you,  or  Good 
luck  to  you). 

It  was  the  custom  in  Elizabethan  times  to  wear 
“ posie  rings  ” (or  poesie  rings)  in  which  inscriptions 
were  cut,  such  as,  “ Let  likinge  Laste,”  “ Remember 
the  V that  is  in  pain,”  or,  “ God  saw  fit  this  knot  to 
knit,”  and  the  like.  These  posie  rings  are  so  called 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


77 


because  of  the  little  poetical  sentiments  associated  with 
them.  They  were  often  used  as  engagement  rings,  and 
sometimes  as  wedding  rings.  In  an  old  Saxon  ring  is 
the  inscription,  “ Eanred  made  me  and  Ethred  owns 
me.”  One  of  the  mottoes  in  an  old  ring  is  pathetic; 
evidently  it  was  worn  by  an  invalid,  who  was  trying  to 
be  patient,  “ Quant  Dieu  Plera  melior  sera.”  (When  it 
shall  please  God,  I shall  be  better.)  And  in  a small 
ring  set  with  a tiny  diamond,  “ This  sparke  shall  grow.” 
An  agreeable  and  favourite  “ posie  ” was 

“ The  love  is  true 
That  I O U.” 

A motto  in  a ring  owned  by  Lady  Cathcart  was 
inscribed  on  the  occasion  of  her  fourth  marriage;  with 
laudable  ambition,  she  observes, 

“ If  I survive, 

I will  have  five.” 

It  is  to  these  “ posie  rings  ” that  Shakespeare  has 
reference  when  he  makes  Jaques  say  to  Orlando:  “ You 
are  full  of  pretty  answers : have  you  not  been  acquainted 
with  goldsmiths’  wives,  and  conned  them  out  of  rings?  ” 
In  the  Isle  of  Man  there  was  once  a law  that  any  girl 
who  had  been  wronged  by  a man  had  the  right  to  redress 
herself  in  one  of  three  ways:  she  was  given  a sword, 
a rope  and  a ring,  and  she  could  decide  whether  she 
would  behead  him,  hang  him,  or  marry  him.  Tradition 


78  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


states  that  the  ring  was  almost  invariably  the  weapon 
chosen  by  the  lady. 

Superstition  has  ordained  that  certain  stones  should 
cure  certain  evils:  the  blood-stone  was  of  very  general 
efficacy,  it  was  claimed,  and  the  opal,  when  folded  in  a 
bay  leaf,  had  the  power  of  rendering  the  owner  invisible. 
Some  stones,  especially  the  turquoise,  turned  pale  or 
became  deeper  in  hue  according  to  the  state  of  the 
owner's  health;  the  owner  of  a diamond  was  invincible; 
the  possession  of  an  agate  made  a man  amiable,  and 
eloquent.  Whoever  wore  an  amethyst  was  proof 
against  intoxication,  while  a jacynth  superinduced  sleep 
in  cases  of  insomnia.  Bed  linen  was  often  embroidered, 
and  set  with  bits  of  jacynth,  and  there  is  even  a record 
of  diamonds  having  been  used  in  the  decoration  of 
sheets!  Another  entertaining  instance  of  credulity 
was  the  use  of  “ cramp  rings."  These  were  rings  blessed 
by  the  queen,  and  supposed  to  cure  all  manner  of 
cramps,  just  as  the  king’s  touch  was  supposed  to  cure 
scrofula.  When  a queen  died,  the  demand  for  these 
rings  became  a panic : no  more  could  be  produced,  until 
a new  queen  was  crowned.  After  the  beheading  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  Husee  writes  to  his  patroness:  “ Your 
ladyship  shall  receive  of  this  bearer  nine  cramp  rings 
of  silver.  John  Williams  says  he  never  had  so  few  of 
gold  as  this  year!  ’’ 

A stone  engraved  with  the  figure  of  a hare  was  believed 
to  be  valuable  in  exorcising  the  devil.  That  of  a dog 
preserved  the  owner  from  “ dropsy  or  pestilence;  ” a 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones  79 

versatile  ring  indeed!  An  old  French  book  speaks  of 
an  engraved  stone  with  the  image  of  Pegasus  being 
particularly  healthful  for  warriors;  it  was  said  to  give 
them  “ boldness  and  swiftness  in  flight.”  These  two 
virtues  sound  a trifle  incompatible! 

The  turquoise  was  supposed  to  be  especially  sympa- 
thetic. According  to  Dr.  Donne: 

“ A compassionate  turquoise,  that  doth  tell 
By  looking  pale,  the  owner  is  not  well,” 

must  have  been  a very  sensitive  stone. 

There  was  a physician  in  the  fourth  century  who  was 
famous  for  his  cures  of  colic  and  biliousness  by  means 
of  an  iron  ring  engraved  with  an  exorcism  requesting 
the  bile  to  go  and  take  possession  of  a bird!  There 
was  also  a superstition  that  fits  could  be  cured  by  a 
ring  made  of  “ sacrament  money.”  The  sufferer  was 
obliged  to  stand  at  the  church  door,  begging  a penny 
from  every  unmarried  man  who  passed  in  or  out;  this 
was  given  to  a silversmith,  who  exchanged  it  at  the 
cathedral  for  “ sacrament  money,”  out  of  which  he 
made  a ring.  If  this  ring  was  worn  by  the  afflicted 
person,  the  seizures  were  said  to  cease. 

The  superstition  concerning  the  jewel  in  the  toad’s 
head  was  a strangely  persistent  one:  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  what  real  foundation  there  could  ever  have 
been  for  the  idea.  An  old  writer  gives  directions  for  get- 
ting this  stone,  which  the  toad  in  his  life  time  seems  to 
have  guarded  most  carefully.  “ A rare  good  way  to  get 


80  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


the  stone  out  of  a toad,”  he  says,  “ is  to  put  a . . . toad 
. . . into  an  earthen  pot:  put  the  same  into  an  ant’s 
hillocke,  and  cover  the  same  with  earth,  which  toad  . . . 
the  ants  will  eat,  so  that  the  bones  . . . and  stone  will 
be  left  in  the  pot.”  Boethius  once  stayed  up  all  night 
watching  a toad  in  the  hope  that  it  might  relinquish  its 
treasure;  but  he  complained  that  nothing  resulted  “ to 
gratify  the  great  pangs  of  his  whole  night’s  restlessness.” 
An  old  Irish  legend  says  that  “ the  stone  Adamant 
in  the  land  of  India  grows  no  colder  in  any  wind  or  snow 
or  ice;  there  is  no  heat  in  it  under  burning  sods”  (this 
is  such  an  Hibernian  touch!  The  peat  fuel  was  the 
Celtic  idea  of  a heating  system),  “ nothing  is  broken  from 
it  by  striking  of  axes  and  hammers;  there  is  one  thing 
only  breaks  that  stone,  the  blood  of  the  Lamb  at  the 
Mass;  and  every  king  that  has  taken  that  stone  in  his 
right  hand  before  going  into  battle,  has  always  gained 
the  victory.”  There  is  also  a superstition  regarding  the 
stone  Hibien,  which  is  said  to  flame  like  a fiery  candle  in 
the  darkness,  “ it  spills  out  poison  before  it  in  a vessel; 
every  snake  that  comes  near  to  it  or  crosses  it  dies  on 
the  moment.”  Another  stone  revered  in  Irish  legend  is 
the  Stone  of  Istien,  which  is  found  “ in  the  brains  of 
dragons  after  their  deaths,”  and  a still  more  capable 
jewel  seems  to  be  the  Stone  of  Fanes,  within  which  it 
is  claimed  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  twelve  stars  are  to 
be  seen.  “ In  the  hearts  of  the  dragons  it  is  always 
found  that  make  their  journey  under  the  sea.  No 
one  having  it  in  his  hand  can  tell  any  lie  until  he  has 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


81 


put  it  from  him;  no  race  or  army  could  bring  it  into  a 
house  where  there  is  one  that  has  made  way  with  his 
father.  At  the  hour  of  matins  it  gives  out  sweet  music 
that  there  is  not  the  like  of  under  heaven.” 

Bartholomew,  the  mediaeval  scientist,  tells  narratives 
of  the  magical  action  of  the  sapphire.  “ The  sapphire 
is  a precious  stone,”  he  says,  “ and  is  blue  in  colour, 
most  like  to  heaven  in  fair  weather  and  clear,  and  is 
best  among  precious  stones,  and  most  apt  and  able  to 
fingers  of  kings.  And  if  thou  put  an  addercop  in  a 
box,  and  hold  a very  sapphire  of  India  at  the  mouth 
of  the  box  any  while,  by  virtue  thereof  the  addercop  is 
overcome  and  dieth,  as  it  were  suddenly.  And  this  same 
I have  seen  proved  oft  in  many  and  divers  places.” 
Possibly  the  fact  that  the  addercop  is  so  infrequent  an 
invader  of  our  modern  life  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
we  are  left  inert  upon  reading  so  surprising  a statement ; 
or  possibly  our  incredulity  dominates  our  awe. 

The  art  of  the  lapidary,  or  science  of  glyptics,  is  a 
most  interesting  study,  and  it  would  be  a mistake  not 
to  consider  it  for  a few  moments  on  its  technical  side. 
It  is  very  ancient  as  an  art.  In  Ecclesiasticus  the  wise 
Son  of  Sirach  alludes  to  craftsmen  “ that  cut  and  grave 
seals,  and  are  diligent  to  make  great  variety,  and  give 
themselves  to  counterfeit  imagery,  and  watch  to  finish 
a work.” 

Theophilus  on  glyptics  is  too  delightfully  naive  for 
us  to  resist  quoting  his  remarks.  “ Crystal,”  he  an- 
nounces, “ which  is  water  hardened  into  ice,  and  the 


82  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


ice  of  great  age  hardened  into  stone,  is  trimmed  and 
polished  in  this  manner.”  He  then  directs  the  use  of 
sandstone  and  emery,  chiefly  used  by  rubbing,  as  one 
might  infer,  to  polish  the  stones,  probably  en  cabochon 
as  was  the  method  in  his  time;  this  style  of  finish  on  a 
gem  was  called  “ tallow  cutting.”  But  when  one  wishes 
to  sculp  crystal,  Theophilus  informs  one:  “ Take  a 

goat  of  two  or  three  years  . . . make  an  opening 
between  his  breast  and  stomach,  in  the  position  of  the 
heart,  and  lay  in  the  crystal,  so  that  it  may  lie  in  its 
blood  until  it  grow  warm  ...  cut  what  you  please  in 
it  as  long  as  the  heat  lasts.”  Just  how  many  goats  were 
required  to  the  finishing  of  a sculptured  crystal  would 
be  determined  by  the  elaboration  of  the  design!  Un- 
fortunately Animal  Rescue  Leagues  had  not  invaded  the 
monasteries  of  the  eleventh  century. 

In  sculpturing  glass,  the  ingenuous  Theophilus  is 
quite  at  his  best.  “ Artists!  ” he  exclaims,  “ who  wish 
to  engrave  glass  in  a beautiful  manner,  I now  can  teach 
you,  as  I have  myself  made  trial.  I have  sought  the 
gross  worms  which  the  plough  turns  up  in  the  ground, 
and  the  art  necessary  in  these  things  also  bid  me  procure 
vinegar,  and  the  warm  blood  of  a lusty  goat,  which  I 
was  careful  to  place  under  the  roof  for  a short  time, 
bound  with  a strong  ivy  plant.  After  this  I infused  the 
worms  and  vinegar  with  the  warm  blood  and  I anointed 
the  whole  clearly  shining  vessel;  which  being  done,  I 
essayed  to  sculp  the  glass  with  the  hard  stone  called  the 
Pyrites.”  What  a pity  good  Theophilus  had  not  begun 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


83 


with  the  pyrites,  when  he  would  probably  have  made  the 
further  discovery  that  his  worms  and  goats  could  have 
been  spared. 

In  the  polishing  of  precious  stones,  he  is  quite  sane  in 
his  directions.  “ Procure  a marble  slab,  very  smooth,” 
he  enjoins,  “ and  act  as  useful  art  points  out  to  you.”  In 
other  words,  rub  it  until  it  is  smooth! 

Bartholomew  Anglicus  is  as  entertaining  as  Theophilus 
regarding  crystal.  “ Men  trowe  that  it  is  of  snow  or 
ice  made  hard  in  many  years,”  he  observes  complacently. 
“ This  stone  set  in  the  sun  taketh  fire,  insomuch  if  dry 
tow  be  put  thereto,  it  setteth  the  tow  on  fire,”  and  again, 
quoting  Gregory  on  Ezekiel  I.,  he  adds,  “ water  is  of 
itself  fleeting,  but  by  strength  of  cold  it  is  turned  and 
made  stedfast  crystal.” 

Of  small  specimens  of  sculptured  crystal  some  little 
dark  purple  beads  carved  into  the  semblance  of  human 
faces  may  be  seen  on  the  Tara  brooch;  while  also  on 
the  same  brooch  occur  little  purple  daisies. 

The  Cup  of  the  Ptolemies,  a celebrated  onyx  cup  in 
Paris,  is  over  fifteen  inches  in  circumference,  and  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  earfy  lapidary’s  work.  It  was  pre- 
sented in  the  ninth  century  by  Charles  the  Bald  to  St. 
Denis,  and  was  always  used  to  contain  the  consecrated 
wine  when  Queens  of  France  were  crowned.  Henry  II. 
once  pawned  it  to  a Jew  when  he  was  hard  up,  and  in 
1804  it  was  stolen  and  the  old  gold  and  jewelled  setting 
removed.  It  was  found  again  in  Holland,  and  was 
remounted  within  a century. 


84  Arts  , and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


In  the  Treasury  of  St.  Mark's  in  Venice  are  many  valu- 
able examples  of  carved  stones,  made  into  cups,  flagons, 
and  the  like.  These  were  brought  from  Constantinople  in 
1204,  when  the  city  was  captured  by  the  Venetians. 
Constantinople  was  the  only  place  where  glyptics  were 
understood  and  practised  upon  large  hard  stones  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages.  The  Greek  artists  who  took  refuge 
in  Italy  at  that  time  brought  the  art  with  them.  There 
are  thirty-two  of  these  Byzantine  chalices  in  St.  Mark's. 
Usually  the  mountings  are  of  gold,  and  precious  stones. 
There  are  also  two  beautiful  cruets  of  agate,  elaborately 
ornamented,  but  carved  in  curious  curving  forms  requir- 
ing skill  of  a superior  order.  Two  other  rock  crystal 
cruets  are  superbly  carved,  probably  by  Oriental  work- 
men, however,  as  they  are  not  Byzantine  in  their  decora- 
tions. One  of  them  was  originally  a vase,  and,  indeed,  is 
still,  for  the  long  gold  neck  has  no  connection  with  the 
inside;  the  handle  is  also  of  gold,  both  these  adjuncts 
seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  simply  ornament.  The 
other  cruet  is  carved  elaborately  with  leopards,  the  first 
and  taller  one  showing  monsters  and  foliate  forms. 
Around  the  neck  of  the  lower  of  these  rock  crystal  cruets 
is  an  inscription,  praying  for  God's  blessing  on  the 
“ Imam  Aziz  Billah,"  who  was  reigning  in  Egypt 
in  980.  This  cruet  has  a gold  stand.  The  handle  is 
cleverly  cut  in  the  same  piece  of  crystal,  but  a band  of 
gold  is  carried  down  it  to  give  it  extra  strength.  The 
forming  of  this  handle  in  connection  with  the  rest  of  the 
work  is  a veritable  tour  de  force , and  we  should  have 


CRYSTAL  FLAGONS,  ST.  MARK’S,  VENICE 


I 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


85 


grave  doubts  whether  Theophilus  with  his  goats  could 
have  managed  it! 

Vasari  speaks  with  characteristic  enthusiasm  of  the 
glyptics  of  the  Greeks,  “ whose  works  in  that  manner 
may  be  called  divine.”  But,  as  he  continues,  “ many 
and  very  many  years  passed  over  during  which  the  art 
was  lost  ”.  . . . until  in  the  days  of  Lorenzo  di  Medici 
the  fashion  for  cameos  and  intaglios  revived. 

In  the  Guild  of  the  Masters  of  Wood  and  Stone  in 
Florence,  the  cameo-cutters  found  a place,  nevertheless 
it  seems  fitting  to  include  them  at  this  point  among 
jewellers,  instead  of  among  carvers. 

The  Italians  certainly  succeeded  in  performing  feats 
of  lapidary  art  at  a later  period.  Vasari  mentions  two 
cups  ordered  by  Duke  Cosmo,  one  cut  out  of  a piece  of 
lapis  lazuli,  and  the  other  from  an  enormous  heliotrope, 
and  a crystal  galley  with  gold  rigging  was  made  by  the 
Sanachi  brothers.  In  the  Green  Vaults  in  Dresden  may 
be  seen  numerous  specimens  of  valuable  but  hideous 
products  of  this  class.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
art  had  run  its  course,  and  gave  place  to  a taste  for 
cameos,  which  in  its  turn  was  run  into  the  ground. 

Cameo-cutting  and  gem  engraving  has  always  been 
accomplished  partly  by  means  of  a drill;  the  deepest 
point  to  be  reached  in  the  cutting  would  be  punctured 
first,  and  then  the  surfaces  cut,  chipped,  and  ground 
away  until  the  desired  level  was  attained.  This  is  on 
much  the  same  principle  as  that  adopted  by  marble 
cutters  to-day. 


86  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Mr.  Cyril  Davenport’s  definition  of  a cameo  is  quite 
satisfactory  : “ A small  sculpture  executed  in  low  relief 
upon  some  substance  precious  either  for  its  beauty, 
rarity,  or  hardness.”  Cameos  are  usually  cut  in  onyx, 
the  different  layers  and  stratifications  of  colour  being  cut 
away  at  different  depths,  so  that  the  sculpture  appears 
to  be  rendered  in  one  colour  on  another,  and  sometimes 
three  or  four  layers  are  recognized,  so  that  a shaded 
effect  is  obtained.  Certain  pearly  shells  are  sometimes 
used  for  cameo  cutting;  these  were  popular  in  Italy  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  In  Greece  and  Rome  the  art  of 
cameo  cutting  was  brought  to  astonishing  perfection, 
the  sardonyx  being  frequently  used,  and  often  cut  in  five 
different  coloured  layers.  An  enormous  antique  cameo, 
measuring  over  nine  inches  across,  maybe  seen  in  Vienna; 
it  represents  the  Apotheosis  of  Augustus,  and  the  scene 
is  cut  in  two  rows  of  spirited  figures.  It  dates  from  the 
first  century  a.  d.  It  is  in  dark  brown  and  white. 

Among  the  treasures  of  the  art-loving  Henry  III.  was 
a “ great  cameo,”  in  a golden  case;  it  was  worth  two 
hundred  pounds.  This  cameo  was  supposed  to  compete 
with  a celebrated  work  at  Ste.  Chapelle  in  Paris,  which 
had  been  brought  by  Emperor  Baldwin  II.  from  Con- 
stantinople. 

In  Paris  was  a flourishing  guild,  the  “ Lapidaries, 
Jewel  Cutters,  and  Engravers  of  Cameos  and  Hard 
Stones,”  in  the  thirteenth  century;  glass  cutters  were 
included  in  this  body  for  a time,  but  after  1584  the  re- 
vised laws  did  not  permit  of  any  imitative  work,  so  glass 


SARDONYX  CUP,  llTH  CENTURY,  VENICE 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


87 


cutters  were  no  longer  allowed  to  join  the  society.  The 
French  work  was  rather  coarse  compared  with  the 
classic  examples. 

The  celebrated  Portland  Vase  is  a glass  cameo,  of  enor- 
mous proportions,  and  a work  of  the  first  century,  in  blue 
and  white.  There  is  a quaint  legend  connected  with  the 
famous  stone  cameo  known  as  the  Vase  of  St.  Martin, 
which  is  as  follows : when  St.  Martin  visited  the  Martyr’s 
Field  at  Agaune,  he  prayed  for  some  time,  and  then  stuck 
his  knife  into  the  ground,  and  was  excusably  astonished 
at  seeing  blood  flow  forth.  Recognizing  at  once  that  he 
was  in  the  presence  of  the  miraculous  (which  was  almost 
second  nature  to  mediaeval  saints),  he  began  sedulously 
to  collect  the  precious  fluid  in  a couple  of  receptacles 
with  which  he  had  had  the  foresight  to  provide  himself. 
The  two  vases,  however,  were  soon  filled,  and  yet  the 
mystical  ruby  spring  continued.  At  his  wit’s  ends,  he 
prayed  again  for  guidance,  and  presently  an  angel  de- 
scended, with  a vase  of  fine  cameo  workmanship,  in 
which  the  remainder  of  the  sacred  fluid  was  preserved. 
This  vase  is  an  onyx,  beautifully  cut,  with  fine  figures, 
and  is  over  eight  inches  high,  mounted  at  foot  and  collar 
with  Byzantine  gold  and  jewelled  work.  The  subject 
appears  to  be  an  episode  during  the  Siege  of  Troy,  — a 
whimsical  selection  of  design  for  an  angel. 

Some  apparently  mediaeval  cameos  are  in  reality 
antiques  recut  with  Christian  characters.  A Hercules 
could  easily  be  turned  into  a David,  while  Perseus  and 
Medusa  could  be  transformed  quickly  into  a David  and 


88  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Goliath.  There  are  two  examples  of  cameos  of  the  Virgin 
which  had  commenced  their  careers,  one  as  a Leda,  and 
the  other  as  Venus!  While  a St.  John  had  originally 
figured  as  Jupiter  with  his  eagle! 

In  the  Renaissance  there  was  great  revival  of  all  bran- 
ches of  gem  cutting,  and  cameos  began  to  improve,  and 
to  resemble  once  more  their  classical  ancestors.  Indeed, 
their  resemblance  was  rather  academic,  and  there  was 
little  originality  in  design.  Like  most  of  the  Renaissance 
arts,  it  was  a reversion  instead  of  a new  creation.  Tech- 
nically, however,  the  work  was  a triumph.  The  crafts- 
men were  not  satisfied  until  they  had  quite  outdone  the 
ancients,  and  they  felt  obliged  to  increase  the  depth  of 
the  cutting,  in  order  to  show  how  cleverly  they  could 
coerce  the  material ; they  even  under-cut  in  some  cases. 
During  the  Medicean  period  of  Italian  art,  cameos  were 
cut  in  most  fantastic  forms;  sometimes  a negro  head 
would  be  introduced  simply  to  exhibit  a dark  stratum 
in  the  onyx,  and  was  quite  without  beauty.  One  of  the 
Florentine  lapidaries  was  known  as  Giovanni  of  the 
Carnelians,  and  another  as  Domenico  of  the  Cameos. 
This  latter  carved  a portrait  of  Ludovico  il  Moro  on  a red 
balas  ruby,  in  intaglio.  Nicolo  Avanzi  is  reported  as 
having  carved  a lapis  lazuli  “ three  fingers  broad  ” into 
the  scene  of  the  Nativity.  Matteo  dal  Nassaro,  a son  of 
a shoemaker  in  Verona,  developed  extraordinary  talent 
in  gem  cutting. 

An  exotic  production  is  a crucifix  cut  in  a blood-stone 
by  Matteo  del  Nassaro,  where  the  artist  has  so  utilized 


Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 


89 


the  possibilities  of  this  stone  that  he  has  made  the  red 
patches  to  come  in  suitable  places  to  portray  drops  of 
blood.  Matteo  worked  also  in  Paris,  in  1531,  where  he 
formed  a school  and  craft  shop,  and  where  he  was  after- 
wards made  Engraver  of  the  Mint. 

# Vasari  tells  of  an  ingenious  piece  of  work  by  Matteo, 
where  he  has  carved  a chalcedony  into  a head  of  Dejanira, 
with  the  skin  of  the  lion  about  it.  He  says,  “In  the  stone 
there  was  a vein  of  red  colour,  and  here  the  artist  has 
made  the  skin  turn  over  . . . and  he  has  represented 
this  skin  with  such  exactitude  that  the  spectator  imagines 
himself  to  behold  it  newly  torn  from  the  animal!  Of 
another  mark  he  has  availed  himself,  for  the  hair,  and 
the  white  parts  he  has  taken  for  the  face  and  breast.” 
Matteo  was  an  independent  spirit:  when  a baron  once 
tried  to  beat  him  down  in  his  price  for  a gem,  he  refused 
to  take  a small  sum  for  it,  but  asked  the  baron  to  accept 
it  as  a gift.  When  this  offer  was  refused,  and  the  noble- 
man insisted  upon  giving  a low  price,  Matteo  deliberately 
took  his  hammer  and  shattered  the  cameo  into  pieces  at 
a single  blow.  His  must  have  been  an  unhappy  life. 
Vasari  says  that  he  “ took  a wife  in  France  and  became 
the  father  of  children,  but  they  were  so  entirely  dis- 
similar to  himself,  that  he  had  but  little  satisfaction 
from  them.” 

Another  famous  lapidary  was  Valerio  Vicentino,  who 
carved  a set  of  crystals  which  were  made  into  a casket 
for  Pope  Clement  VII.,  while  for  Paul  III.  he  made  a 
carved  crystal  cross  and  chandelier. 


90  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Vasari  reserves  his  highest  commendation  for  Casati, 
called  “ el  Greco,”  “ by  whom  every  other  artist  is  sur- 
passed in  the  grace  and  perfection  as  well  as  in  the  uni- 
versality of  his  productions.”  . . . “Nay,  Michelangelo 
himself,  looking  at  them  one  day  while  Giovanni  Vasari 
was  present,  remarked  that  the  hour  for  the  death  of  the 
art  had  arrived,  for  it  was  not  possible  that  better  work 
could  be  seen!  ” Michelangelo  proved  a prophet,  in  this 
case  surely,  for  the  decadence  followed  swiftly. 


CHAPTER  III 


\ 


ENAMEL 

“ Oh,  thou  discreetest  of  readers,”  says  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  “ marvel  not  that  I have  given  so  much  time  to 
writing  about  all  this,”  and  we  feel  like  making  the  same 
apology  for  devoting  a whole  chapter  to  enamel;  but 
this  branch  of  the  goldsmith’s  art  has  so  many  sub- 
divisions, that  it  cries  for  space. 

The  word  Enamel  is  derived  from  various  sources. 
The  Greek  language  has  contributed  “ maltha,”  to  melt; 
the  German  “ schmeltz,”  the  old  French  “ esmail,”  and 
the  Italian  “smalta,”  all  meaning  about  the  same  thing, 
and  suggesting  the  one  quality  which  is  inseparable  from 
enamel  of  all  nations  and  of  all  ages,  — its  fusibility. 
For  it  is  always  employed  in  a fluid  state,  and  always 
must  be. 

Enamel  is  a type  of  glass  product  reduced  to  powder, 
and  then  melted  by  fervent  heat  into  a liquid  condition, 
which,  when  it  has  hardened,  returns  to  its  vitreous  state. 

Enamel  has  been  used  from  very  early  times.  The  first 
allusion  to  it  is  by  Philostratus,  in  the  year  200  a.  d., 
where  he  described  the  process  as  applied  to  the  armour 
of  his  day.  “ The  barbarians  of  the  regions  of  the  ocean,” 

91 


92  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


he  writes,  “ are  skilled  in  fusing  colours  on  heated  brass, 
which  become  as  hard  as  stone,  and  render  the  ornament 
thus  produced  durable.” 

Enamels  have  special  characteristics  in  different 
periods:  in  the  late  tenth  century,  of  Byzantium  and 
Germany;  in  the  eleventh  century,  of  Italy;  while  most 
of  the  later  work  owes  its  leading  characteristics  to  the 
French,  although  it  continued  to  be  produced  in  the 
other  countries. 

It  helps  one  to  understand  the  differences  and  similari- 
ties in  enamelled  work,  to  observe  the  three  general  forms 
in  which  it  is  employed;  these  are,  the  cloisonne,  the 
champleve,  and  the  painted  enamel.  There  are  many 
subdivisions  of  these  classifications,  but  for  our  purpose 
these  three  will  suffice. 

In  cloisonne,  the  only  manner  known  to  the  Greek, 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  Celtic  craftsmen,  the  pattern  is  made 
upon  a gold  ground,  by  little  upright  wire  lines,  like 
filigree,  the  enamel  is  fused  into  all  the  little  compart- 
ments thus  formed,  each  bit  being  one  clear  colour,  on  the 
principle  of  a mosaic.  The  colours  were  always  rather 
clear  and  crude,  but  are  the  more  sincere  and  decorative 
on  this  account,  the  worker  recognizing  frankly  the  limi- 
tation of  the  material;  and  the  gold  outline  harmonizes 
the  whole,  as  it  does  in  any  form  of  art  work.  A cloi- 
sonne enamel  is  practically  a mosaic,  in  which  the  sepa- 
rations consist  of  narrow  bands  of  metal  instead  of 
plaster.  The  enamel  was  applied  in  its  powdered  state 
on  the  gold,  and  then  fused  all  together  in  the  furnace. 


Enamel 


93 


GERMAN  ENAMEL,  13TH  CENTURY 


94  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Champleve  enamel  has  somewhat  the  same  effect  as 
the  cloisonne,  but  the  end  is  attained  by  different  means. 
The  outline  is  left  in  metal,  and  the  whole  background 
is  cut  away  and  sunk,  thus  making  the  hollow  chambers 
for  the  vitreous  paste,  in  one  piece,  instead  of  by  means 
of  wires.  Often  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  which  method 
has  been  employed  to  produce  a given  work. 

Painted  enamels  were  not  employed  in  the  earliest 
times,  but  came  to  perfection  in  the  Renaissance.  A 
translucent  enamel  prevailed  especially  in  Italy:  a low 
relief  was  made  with  the  graver  on  gold  or  silver;  fine 
raised  lines  were  left  here  and  there,  to  separate  the 
colours.  Therefore,  where  the  cutting  was  deepest,  the 
enamel  ran  thicker,  and  consequently  darker  in  colour, 
giving  the  effect  of  shading,  while  in  reality  only  one 
tint  had  been  used.  The  powdered  and  moistened 
enamel  was  spread  evenly  with  a spatula  over  the  whole 
surface,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  kiln  until  it  liquefied. 
Another  form  of  enamel  was  used  to  colour  gold  work  in 
relief,  with  a permanent  coating  of  transparent  colour. 
Sometimes  this  colour  was  applied  in  several  coats,  one 
upon  another,  and  the  features  painted  with  a later 
touch.  Much  enamelled  jewelry  was  made  in  this  way, 
figures,  dragons,  and  animal  forms,  being  among  the 
most  familiar.  But  an  actual  enamel  painting  — on 
the  principle  of  a picture,  was  rendered  in  still  another 
way.  In  preparing  the  ground  for  enamel  painting, 
there  are  two  things  which  have  been  essentially  con- 
sidered in  all  times  and  countries.  The  enamel  ground 


ENAMELLED 


GOLD 


BOOK 


COYER, 


SIENA 


Enamel 


95 


must  be  more  fusible  than  the  metal  on  which  it  is 
placed,  or  else  both  would  melt  together.  Also  the 
enamel  with  which  the  final  decoration  is  executed 
must  be  more  easily  made  fluid  than  the  harder  enamel 
on  which  it  is  laid.  In  fact,  each  coat  must  of  necessity 
be  a trifle  more  fusible  than  the  preceding  one.  A very 
accurate  knowledge  is  necessary  to  execute  such  a work, 
as  will  be  readily  understood. 

In  examining  historic  examples  of  enamel,  the  curious 
oval  set  in  gold,  known  as  the  Alfred  Jewel,  is  among 
the  first  which  come  within  our  province.  It  was  found 
in  Somersetshire,  and  probably  dates  from  about  the 
year  878.  It  consists  of  an  enamelled  figure  covered  by 
a thick  crystal,  set  in  filigree,  around  the  edge  of  which 
runs  the  inscription,  “ Aelfred  Mec  Reht  Gavur  Can’7 
(Alfred  ordered  me  to  be  wrought).  King  Alfred  was  a 
great  patron  of  the  arts.  Of  such  Anglo-Saxon  work,  an 
ancient  poem  in  the  Exeter  Book  testifies : 

“ For  one  a wondrous  skill 
in  goldsmith’s  art  is  provided 
Full  oft  he  decorates  and  well  adorns 
A powerful  king’s  nobles.” 

Celtic  enamels  are  interesting,  being  usually  set  in  the 
spaces  among  the  rambling  interlaces  of  this  school  of 
goldsmithing.  The  Cross  of  Cong  is  among  the  most 
famous  specimens  of  this  work,  and  also  the  bosses  on 
the  Ardagh  Chalice. 

The  monk  Theophilus  describes  the  process  of  enamel- 
ling in  a graphic  manner.  He  directs  his  workmen  to 


96  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


“ adapt  their  pieces  of  gold  in  all  the  settings  in  which 
the  glass  gems  are  to  be  placed  ” (by  which  we  see  that 
he  teaches  the  cloisonne  method).  “ Cut  small  bands 
of  exceedingly  thin  gold,”  he  continues,  “ in  which  you 
will  bend  and  fashion  whatever  work  you  wish  to  make 
in  enamel,  whether  circles,  knots,  or  small  flowers,  or 
birds,  or  animals,  or  figures.”  He  then  admonishes  one 
to  solder  it  with  greatest  care,  two  or  three  times,  until 
all  the  pieces  adhere  firmly  to  the  plate.  To  prepare  the 
powdered  glass  Theophilus  advises  placing  a piece  of 
glass  in  the  fire,  and,  when  it  has  become  glowing, 
“ throw  it  into  a copper  vessel  in  which  there  is  water, 
and  it  instantly  flies  into  small  fragments  which  you 
break  with  a round  pestle  until  quite  fine.  The  next 
step  is  to  put  the  powder  in  its  destined  cloison,  and  to 
place  the  whole  jewel  upon  a thin  piece  of  iron,  over 
which  fits  a cover  to  protect  the  enamel  from  the  coals, 
and  put  it  in  the  most  intensely  hot  part  of  the  fire.” 
Theophilus  recommends  that  this  little  iron  cover  be 
“ perforated  finely  all  over  so  that  the  holes  may  be 
inside  flat  and  wide,  and  outside  finer  and  rough,  in 
order  to  stop  the  cinders  if  by  chance  they  should  fall 
upon  it.”  This  process  of  firing  may  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times,  until  the  enamel  fills  every  space  evenly. 
Then  follows  the  tedious  task  of  burnishing;  setting 
the  jewel  in  a strong  bit  of  wax,  you  are  told  to  rub  it 
on  a “ smooth  hard  bone,”  until  it  is  polished  well  and 
evenly. 

Benvenuto  Cellini  recommends  a little  paper  sponge 


Enamel 


97 


to  be  used  in  smoothing  the  face  of  enamels.  “ Take 
a clean  nice  piece  of  paper,”  he  writes,  “ and  chew  it 
well  between  your  teeth,  — that  is,  if  you  have  got 
any  — I could  not  do  it,  because  I’ve  none  left!  ” 

A celebrated  piece  of  goldsmith’s  work  of  the  tenth 
century  is  the  Pala  d’Oro  at  St.  Mark’s  in  Venice. 
This  is  a gold  altar  piece  or  reredos,  about  eleven  feet 
long  and  seven  feet  high,  richly  wrought  in  the  Byzan- 
tine style,  and  set  with  enamels  and  precious  stones. 
The  peculiar  quality  of  the  surface  of  the  gold  still 
lingers  in  the  memory;  it  looks  almost  liquid,  and 
suggests  Ihe  appearance  of  metal  in  a fluid  state.  On 
its  wonderful  divisions  and  arched  compartments  are 
no  less  than  twelve  hundred  pearls,  and  twelve  hundred 
other  precious  gems.  These  stones  surround  the  openings 
in  which  are  placed  the  very  beautiful  enamel  figures 
of  saints  and  sacred  personages.  St.  Michael  occupies 
a prominent  position;  the  figure  is  partly  in  relief. 
The  largest  medallion  contains  the  figure  of  Christ  in 
glory,  and  in  other  compartments  may  be  seen  even  such 
secular  personages  as  the  Empress  Irene,  and  the  Doge 
who  was  ruling  Venice  at  the  time  this  altar  piece  was 
put  in  place  — the  year  1106.  The  Pala  d’Oro  is  worked 
in  the  champleve  process,  the  ground  having  been  cut 
away  to  receive  the  melted  enamel.  It  is  undoubtedly 
a Byzantine  work;  the  Doge  Orseolo,  in  976,  ordered 
it  to  be  made  by  the  enamellers  of  Constantinople.  It 
was  not  finished  for  nearly  two  centuries,  arriving  in 
Venice  in  1102,  when  the  portrait  of  the  Doge  then 


98  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


reigning  was  added  to  it.  The  Byzantine  range  of  colours 
was  copious;  they  had  white,  two  reds,  bright  and  dark, 
dark  and  light  blue,  green,  violet,  yellow,  flesh  tint, 
and  black.  These  tints  were  always  fused  separately, 
one  in  each  cloison : the  Greeks  in  this  period  never  tried 
to  blend  colours,  and  more  than  one  tint  never  appears  in 
a compartment.  The  enlarging  and  improving  of  the 
Pala  d’Oro  was  carried  on  by  Greek  artists  in  Venice 
in  1105.  It  was  twice  altered  after  that,  once  in  the 
fourteenth  century  for  Dandolo,  and  thus  the  pure 
Byzantine  type  is  somewhat  invaded  by  the  Gothic 
spirit.  The  restorations  in  1345  were  presided  over  by 
Gianmaria  Boninsegna. 

One  of  the  most  noted  specimens  of  enamel  work 
is  on  the  Crown  of  Charlemagne, 1 which  is  a magnificent 
structure  of  eight  plaques  of  gold,  joined  by  hinges, 
and  surmounted  by  a cross  in  the  front,  and  an  arch 
crossing  the  whole  like  a rib  from  back  to  front.  The 
other  cross  rib  has  been  lost,  but  originally  the  crown  was 
arched  by  two  ribs  at  the  top.  The  plates  of  gold  are 
ornamented,  one  with  jewels,  and  filigree,  and  the 
next  with  a large  figure  in  enamel.  These  figures  are 
similar  to  those  occurring  on  the  Pala  d Oro. 

The  Shrine  of  the  Three  Kings  in  Cologne  is  decorated 
both  with  cloisonne  and  champleve  enamels,  — an 
unusual  circumstance.  In  Aix  la  Chapelle  the  shrine 
of  Charlemagne  is  extremely  like  it  in  some  respects, 
but  the  only  enamels  are  in  champleve.  Good  examples 

1 See  Fig.  1. 


DETAIL  ; SHRINE  OF  THE  THREE  KINGS,  COLOGNE 


Enamel 


99 


of  translucent  enamels  in  relief  may  be  seen  on  several 
of  the  reliquaries  at  Aix  la  Chapelle. 

Theophilus  gives  us  directions  for  making  a very 
ornate  chalice  with  handles,  richly  embossed  and  orna- 
mented with  niello.  Another  paragraph  instructs  us 
how  to  make  a golden  chalice  decorated  with  precious 
stones  and  pearls.  It  would  be  interesting  as  a modern 
problem,  to  follow  minutely  his  directions,  and  to 
build  the  actual  chalice  described  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. To  apply  the  gems  and  pearls  Theophilus  directs 
us  to  “ cut  pieces  like  straps,”  which  you  “ bend  to- 
gether to  make  small  settings  of  them,  by  which  the 
stones  may  be  enclosed.”  These  little  settings,  with 
their  stones,  are  to  be  fixed  with  flour  paste  in  their 
places  and  then  warmed  over  the  coals  until  they 
adhere.  This  sounds  a little  risky,  but  we  fancy  he 
must  have  succeeded,  and,  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  been 
the  usual  way  of  setting  stones  in  the  early  centuries. 
Filigree  flowers  are  then  to  be  added,  and  the  whole 
soldered  into  place  in  a most  primitive  manner,  banking 
the  coals  “ in  the  shape  of  a small  furnace,  so  that  the 
coals  may  lie  thickly  around  the  circumference,”  and 
when  the  solder  “ flows  about  as  if  undulating,”  the 
artist  is  to  sprinkle  it  quickly  with  water,  and  take  it  out 
of  the  fire. 

Niello,  with  which  the  chalice  of  Theophilus  is  also 
to  be  enriched,  stands  in  relation  to  the  more  beautiful 
art  of  enamel,  as  drawing  does  to  painting,  and  it 
is  well  to  consider  it  here.  Both  the  Romans  and  the 


100  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Anglo-Saxons  understood  its  use.  It  has  been  employed 
as  an  art  ever  since  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries. 
The  term  “ niello  ” probably  is  an  abbreviation  of 
the  Italian  word  “ nigellus  ” (black) ; the  art  is  that  of 
inlaying  an  engraved  surface  with  a black  paste,  which 
is  thoroughly  durable  and  hard  as  the  metal  itself  in 
most  cases,  the  only  difference  being  in  flexibility;  if 
the  metal  plate  is  bent,  the  niello  will  crack  and  flake  off. 

Niello  is  more  than  simply  a drawing  on  metal.  That 
would  come  under  the  head  of  engraving.  A graver 
is  used  to  cut  out  the  design  on  the  surface  of  the  silver, 
which  is  simply  a polished  plane.  When  the  drawing 
has  been  thus  incised,  a black  enamel,  made  of  lead, 
lamp  black,  and  other  substances,  is  filled  into  the 
interstices,  and  rubbed  in;  when  quite  dry  and  hard, 
this  is  polished.  The  result  is  a black  enamel  which  is 
then  fused  into  the  silver,  so  that  the  whole  is  one 
surface,  and  the  decoration  becomes  part  of  the  original 
plate.  The  process  as  described  by  Theophilus  is  as 
follows:  “ Compose  the  niello  in  this  manner;  take  pure 
silver  and  divide  it  into  equal  parts,  adding  to  it  a 
third  part  of  pure  copper,  and  taking  yellow  sulphur, 
break  it  very  small  . . . and  when  you  have  liquefied 
the  silver  with  the  copper,  stir  it  evenly  with  charcoal, 
and  instantly  pour  into  it  lead  and  sulphur.”  This 
niello  paste  is  then  made  into  a stick,  and  heated  until 
“it  glows:  then  with  another  forceps,  long  and  thin, 
hold  the  niello  and  rub  it  all  over  the  places  which  you 
wish  to  make  black,  until  the  drawing  be  full,  and 


FINIGUERRA’s  PAX,  FLORENCE 


Enamel 


101 


carrying  it  away  from  the  fire,  make  it  smooth  with 
a flat  file,  until  the  silver  appear.”  When  Theophilus 
has  finished  his  directions,  he  adds:  “ And  take  great 
care  that  no  further  work  is  required.”  To  polish  the 
niello,  he  directs  us  to  “ pumice  it  with  a damp  stone, 
until  it  is  made  everywhere  bright.” 

There  are  various  accounts  of  how  Finiguerra,  who 
was  a worker  in  niello  in  Florence,  discovered  by  its 
means  the  art  of  steel  engraving.  It  is  probably  only 
a legendary  narrative,  but  it  is  always  told  as  one  of 
the  apocryphal  stories  when  the  origin  of  printing 
is  discussed,  and  may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  Maso 
Finiguerra,  a Florentine,  had  just  engraved  the  plate 
for  his  famous  niello,  a Pax  which  is  now  to  be  seen  in 
the  Bargello,  and  had  filled  it  in  with  the  fluid  enamel, 
which  was  standing  waiting  until  it  should  be  dry.  Then, 
according  to  some  authorities,  a piece  of  paper  blew 
upon  the  damp  surface,  on  which,  after  carefully  re- 
moving it,  Maso  found  his  design  was  impressed;  others 
state  that  it  was  through  the  servant’s  laying  a damp 
cloth  upon  it,  that  the  principle  of  printing  from  an 
incised  plate  was  suggested.  At  any  rate,  Finiguerra 
took  the  hint,  it  is  said,  and  made  an  impression  on 
paper,  rolling  it,  as  one  would  do  with  an  etching  or 
engraving. 

In  the  Silver  Chamber  in  the  Pitti  Palace  is  a Pax, 
by  Mantegna,  made  in  the  same  way  as  that  by  Fini- 
guerra, and  bearing  comparison  with  it.  The  engraving 
is  most  delicate,  and  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  a better 


102  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


specimen  of  the  art.  The  Madonna  and  Child,  seated  in 
an  arbour,  occupy  the  centre  of  the  composition,  which 
is  framed  with  jewelled  bands,  the  frame  being  divided 
into  sixteen  compartments,  in  each  of  which  is  seen  a 
tiny  and  exquisite  picture.  The  work  on  the  arbour 
of  roses  in  which  the  Virgin  sits  is  of  remarkable  quality, 
as  well  as  the  small  birds  and  animals  introduced  into 
the  composition.  In  the  background,  St.  Christopher 
is  seen  crossing  the  river  with  the  Christ  Child  on  his 
back,  while  in  the  water  a fish  and  a swan  are  visible. 

In  Valencia  in  Spain  may  be  seen  a chalice  which  has 
been  supposed  to  be  the  very  cup  in  which  Our  Saviour 
instituted  the  Communion.  The  cup  itself  is  of  sardonyx, 
and  of  fine  form.  The  base  is  made  of  the  same  stone, 
and  handles  and  bands  are  of  gold,  adorned  with  black 
enamel.  Pearls,  rubies,  sapphires,  and  emeralds  are 
set  in  profusion  about  the  stem  and  base.  It  is  a work 
of  the  epoch  of  Imperial  Rome. 

In  England,  one  of  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  fine, 
close  work,  is  the  Wilton  Chalice,  dating  from  the  twelfth 
century.  The  Warwick  Bowl,  too,  is  of  very  delicate 
workmanship,  and  both  are  covered  with  minute  scenes 
and  figures.  One  of  the  most  splendid  treasures  in 
this  line  is  the  crozier  of  William  Wyckham,  now  in 
Oxford.  It  is  strictly  national  in  style. 

The  agreement  entered  into  between  Henry  VII.,  and 
Abbot  Islip,  for  the  building  of  the  chapel  of  that  king 
in  Westminster,  is  extant.  It  is  bound  in  velvet  and 
bossed  with  enamels.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  some 


Enamel 


103 


of  the  enamels  are  in  the  Italian  style,  while  others  are 
evidently  English. 

Limoges  was  the  most  famous  centre  of  the  art  of 
enamelling  in  the  twelfth  century,  the  work  being 
known  as  Opus  de  Limogia,  or  Labor  Limogiae.  Limoges 
was  a Roman  settlement,  and  enamels  were  made  there 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Philostratus.  Champleve  enamel, 
while  it  was  not  produced  among  the  Greeks,  nor  even 
in  Byzantine  work,  was  almost  invariable  at  Limoges 
in  the  earlier  days:  one  can  readily  tell  the  difference 
between  a Byzantine  enamel  and  an  early  Limoges 
enamel  by  this  test,  when  there  is  otherwise  sufficient 
similarity  of  design  to  warrant  the  question. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  enamels  of  Limoges  were 
executed  in  what  was  called  basse-taille,  or  transparent 
enamel  on  gold  grounds,  which  had  been  first  prepared 
in  bas-relief.  Champleve  enamel  was  often  used  on 
copper,  for  such  things  as  pastoral  staves,  reliquaries, 
and  larger  bits  of  church  furniture.  The  enamel  used 
on  copper  is  usually  opaque,  and  somewhat  coarser  in 
texture  than  that  employed  on  gold  or  silver.  Owing 
to  their  additional  toughness,  these  specimens  are  usually 
in  perfect  preservation.  In  1327,  Guillaume  de  Harie, 
in  his  will,  bequeathed  800  francs  to  make  two  high 
tombs,  to  be  covered  with  Limoges  enamel,  one  for 
himself,  and  the  other  for  “ Blanche  d’Avange,  my  dear 
companion.” 

An  interesting  form  of  cloisonne  enamel  was  that 
known  as  “ plique  a jour,”  which  consists  of  a filigree 


ITALIAN  ENAMELLED  CROZIER,  14tH  CENTURY 


Enamel 


105 


setting  with  the  enamel  in  transparent  bits,  without 
any  metallic  background.  It  is  still  made  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  When  held  to  the  light  it  resembles 
minute  arrangements  of  stained  glass.  Francis  I. 
showed  Benvenuto  Cellini  a wonderful  bowl  of  this 
description,  and  asked  Cellini  if  he  could  possibly 
imagine  how  the  result  was  attained.  “ Sacred  Majesty,” 
replied  Benvenuto,  “ I can  tell  you  exactly  how  it  is 
done,”  and  he  proceeded  to  explain  to  the  astonished 
courtiers  how  the  bowl  was  constructed,  bit  by  bit, 
inside  a bowl  of  thin  iron  lined  with  clay.  The  wires 
were  fastened  in  place  with  glue  until  the  design  was 
complete,  and  then  the  enamel  was  put  in  place,  the 
whole  being  fused  together  at  the  soldering.  The  clay 
form  to  which  all  this  temporarily  adhered  was  then 
removed,  and  the  work,  transparent  and  ephemeral, 
was  ready  to  stand  alone. 

King  John  gave  to  the  city  of  Lynn  a magnificent 
cup  of  gold,  enamelled,  with  figures  of  courtiers  of  the 
period,  engaged  in  the  sports  of  hawTking  and  hare- 
hunting, and  dressed  in  the  costume  of  the  king’s 
reign.  “ King  John  gave  to  the  Corporation  a rich  cup 
and  cover,”  says  Mackarel,  “ weighing  seventy-three 
ounces,  which  is  preserved  to  this  day  and  upon  all 
public  occasions  and  entertainments  used  with  some 
uncommon  ceremonies  at  drinking  the  health  of  the 
King  or  Queen,  and  whoever  goes  to  visit  the  Mayor 
must  drink  out  of  this  cup,  which  contains  a full  pint.” 
The  colours  of  the  enamels  which  are  used  as  flat  values 


106  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


in  backgrounds  to  the  little  silver  figures,  are  dark  rose, 
clear  blue,  and  soft  green.  The  dresses  of  the  persons 
are  also  picked  out  in  the  same  colours,  varied  from  the 
grounds.  This  cup  was  drawn  by  John  Carter  in  1787, 
he  having  had  much  trouble  in  getting  permission  to 
study  the  original  for  that  purpose!  He  took  letters 
of  introduction  to  the  Corporation,  but  they  appeared 
to  suspect  him  of  some  imposture;  at  first  they  refused 
to  entertain  his  proposal  at  all,  but  after  several  appli- 
cations, he  was  allowed  to  have  the  original  before  him, 
in  a closed  room,  in  company  with  a person  appointed 
by  them  but  at  his  expense,  to  watch  him  and  see  that 
no  harm  came  to  the  precious  cup! 

The  translucent  enamels  on  relief  were  made  a great 
deal  by  the  Italian  goldsmiths;  Vasari  alludes  to  this 
class  of  work  as  “ a species  of  painting  united  with 
sculpture.” 

As  enamel  came  by  degrees  to  be  used  as  if  it  were 
paint,  one  of  the  chief  charms  of  the  art  died.  The 
limits  of  this  art  were  its  strength,  and  simple  straight- 
forward use  of  the  material  was  its  best  expression.  The 
method  of  making  a painted  enamel  was  as  follows. 
The  design  was  laid  out  with  a stilus  on  a copper  plate. 
Then  a flux  of  plain  enamel  was  fused  on  to  the  surface, 
all  over  it.  The  drawing  was  then  made  again,  on  the 
same  lines,  in  a dark  medium,  and  the  colours  were  laid 
flat  inside  the  dark  lines,  accepting  these  lines  as  if 
they  had  been  wires  around  cloisons.  All  painted 
enamels  had  to  be  enamelled  on  the  back  as  well,  to 


Enamel 


107 


prevent  warping  in  the  furnace  when  the  shrinkage 
took  place.  After  each  layer  of  colour  the  whole  plate 
was  fired.  In  the  fifteenth  century  these  enamels  were 
popular  and  retained  some  semblance  of  respect  for 
the  limitation  of  material;  later,  greater  facility  led, 
as  it  does  in  most  of  the  arts,  to  a decadence  in  taste, 
and  florid  pictures,  with  as  many  colours  and  shadows 
as  would  appear  in  an  oil  painting,  resulted.  Here  and 
there,  where  special  metallic  brilliancy  was  desired,  a 
leaf  of  gold  was  laid  under  the  colour  of  some  transpar- 
ent enamel,  giving  a decorative  lustre.  These  bits  of 
brilliant  metal  were  known  as  paillons. 

When  Limoges  had  finally  become  the  royal  manu- 
factory of  enamels,  under  Francis  I.,  the  head  of  the 
works  was  Leonard  Limousin,  created  “ Valet  de 
Chambre  du  Roi,”  to  show  his  sovereign’s  appreciation. 
Remarkable  examples  of  the  work  of  Leonard  Limousin, 
executed  in  1547,  are  the  large  figures  of  the  Apostles 
to  be  seen  in  the  church  of  St.  Pierre,  at  Chartres,  where 
they  are  ranged  about  the  apsidal  chapel.  They  are 
painted  enamels  on  copper  sheets  twenty-four  by  eleven 
inches,  and  are  in  a wonderful  state  of  preservation. 
They  were  the  gift  of  Henri  II.  to  Diane  de  Poictiers 
and  were  brought  to  Chartres  from  the  Chateau  d’Anet. 
These  enamels,  being  on  a white  ground,  have  something 
the  effect  of  paintings  in  Faience;  the  colouring  is  deli- 
cate, and  they  have  occasional  gold  touches. 

A treatise  by  William  of  Essex  directs  the  artist  how 
to  prepare  a plate  for  a painted  enamel,  such  as  were 


108  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


used  in  miniature  work.  He  says  “ To  make  a plate  for 
the  artist  to  paint  upon : a piece  of  gold  or  copper  being 
chosen,  of  requisite  dimensions,  and  varying  from 
about  ^8  to  yq  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is  covered 
with  pulverized  enamel,  and  passed  through  the  fire, 
until  it  becomes  of  a white  heat;  another  coating  of 
enamel  is  then  added,  and  the  plate  again  fired;  after- 
wards a thin  layer  of  a substance  called  flux  is  laid  upon 
the  surface  of  the  enamel,  and  the  plate  undergoes  the 
action  of  heat  for  a third  time.  It  is  now  ready  for  the 
painter  to  commence  his  picture  upon.” 

Leonard  Limousin  painted  from  1532  until  1574. 
He  used  the  process  as  described  by  William  of  Essex 
(which  afterwards  became  very  popular  for  miniatur- 
ists), and  also  composed  veritable  pictures  of  his  own 
design.  It  is  out  of  our  province  to  trace  the  history 
of  the  Limoges  enamellers  after  this  period. 


CHAPTER  IV 


OTHER  METALS 

The  “ perils  that  environ  men  that  meddle  with  cold 
iron  ” are  many;  but  those  who  attempt  to  control 
hot  iron  are  also  to  be  respected,  when  they  achieve 
an  artistic  result  with  this  unsympathetic  metal,  which 
by  nature  is  entirely  lacking  in  charm,  in  colour  and 
texture,  and  depends  more  upon  a proper  application 
of  design  than  any  other,  in  order  to  overcome  the 
obstacles  to  beauty  with  which  it  is  beset. 

“ Rust  hath  corrupted/'  unfortunately,  many  inter- 
esting antiquities  in  iron,  so  that  only  a limited  number 
of  specimens  of  this  metal  have  come  down  to  us  from 
very  early  times;  one  of  the  earliest  in  England  is  a 
grave-stone  of  cast  metal,  of  the  date  1350:  it  is  deco- 
rated with  a cross,  and  has  the  epitaph,  “ Pray  for  the 
soul  of  Joan  Collins." 

The  process  of  casting  iron  was  as  follows.  The 
moulds  were  made  of  a sandy  substance,  composed  of 
a mixture  of  brick  dust,  loam,  plaster,  and  charcoal. 
A bed  of  this  sand  was  made,  and  into  it  was  pressed 
a wooden  or  metal  pattern.  When  this  was  removed, 
the  imprint  remained  in  the  sand.  Liquid  metal  was 

109 


110  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


run  into  the  mould  so  formed,  and  would  cool  into  the 
desired  shape.  As  with  a plaster  cast,  it  was  necessary 
to  employ  two  such  beds,  the  sand  being  firmly  held 
in  boxes,  if  the  object  was  to  be  rounded,  and  then  the 
two  halves  thus  made  were  put  together.  Flat  objects, 
such  as  fire-backs,  could  be  run  into  a single  mould. 

Bartholomew,  in  his  book  “ On  the  Properties  of 
Things,”  makes  certain  statements  about  iron  which 
are  interesting:  “ Though  iron  cometh  of  the  earth, 
yet  it  is  most  hard  and  sad,  and  therefore  with  beating 
and  smiting  it  suppresseth  and  dilateth  all  other  metal, 
and  maketh  it  stretch  on  length  and  on  breadth.”  This 
is  the  key-note  to  the  work  of  a blacksmith:  it  is  what 
he  has  done  from  the  first,  and  is  still  doing. 

In  Spain  there  have  been  iron  mines  ever  since  the 
days  when  Pliny  wrote  and  alluded  to  them,  but  there 
are  few  samples  in  that  country  to  lead  us  to  regard  it 
as  aesthetic  in  its  purpose  until  the  fifteenth  century. 

For  tempering  iron  instruments,  there  are  recipes 
given  by  the  monk  Theophilus,  but  they  are  unfortu- 
nately quite  unquotable,  being  treated  wTith  mediaeval 
frankness  of  expression. 

St.  Dunstan  was  the  patron  of  goldsmiths  and  black- 
smiths. He  was  born  in  925,  and  lived  in  Glastonbury, 
where  he  became  a monk  rather  early  in  life.  He  not 
only  worked  in  metal,  but  was  a good  musician  and  a 
great  scholar,  in  fact  a genuine  rounded  man  of  culture. 
He  built  an  organ,  no  doubt  something  like  the  one 
which  Theophilus  describes,  which,  Bede  tells  us, 


Other  Metals 


111 


being  fitted  with  “ brass  pipes,  filled  with  air  from  the 
bellows,  uttered  a grand  and  most  sweet  melody.” 
Dunstan  was  a favourite  at  court,  in  the  reign  of  King 
Edmund.  Enemies  were  plentiful,  however,  and  they 
spread  the  report  that  Dunstan  evoked  demoniac  aid 
in  his  almost  magical  work  in  its  many  departments. 
It  was  said  that  occasionally  the  evil  spirits  were  too 
aggravating,  and  that  in  such  cases  Dunstan  would  stand 
no  nonsense.  There  is  an  old  verse: 

“St.  Dunstan,  so  the  story  goes, 

Once  pulled  the  devil  by  the  nose, 

With  red  hot  tongs,  which  made  him  roar 
That  he  was  heard  three  miles  or  more!  ” 

The  same  story  is  told  of  St.  Eloi,  and  probably  of 
most  of  the  mediaeval  artistic  spirits  who  were  unfortu- 
nate enough  to  be  human  in  their  temperaments  and  at 
the  same  time  pious  and  struggling.  He  was  greatly 
troubled  by  visitations  such  as  persecuted  St.  Anthony. 
On  one  occasion,  it  is  related  that  he  was  busy  at  his 
forge  when  this  fiend  was  unusually  persistent : St.  Dun- 
stan turned  upon  the  demon,  and  grasped  its  nose  in  the 
hot  pincers,  which  proved  a most  successful  exorcism. 
In  old  portraits,  St.  Dunstan  is  represented  in  full  eccle- 
siastical habit,  holding  the  iron  pincers  as  symbols 
of  his  prowess. 

He  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  after  having 
held  the  Sees  of  Worcester  and  London.  He  journeyed 
to  Rome,  and  received  the  pallium  of  Primate  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  from  Pope  John  XII.  Dunstan  was  a 


112  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


righteous  statesman,  twice  reproving  the  king  for  evil 
deeds,  and  placing  his  Royal  Highness  under  the  ban 
of  the  Church  for  immoral  conduct!  St.  Dunstan  died 
in  988. 

Wrought  iron  has  been  in  use  for  many  centuries  for 


hinges  and  other  decorations  on  doors;  a necessity  to 


WROUGHT  IRON  HINGE,  FRANKFORT 


every  building  in  a town  from  earliest  times.  The  word 
“ hinge  ” comes  from  the  Saxon,  hengen,  to  hang. 
Primitive  hinges  were  sometimes  sockets  cut  in  stone, 
as  at  Torcello;  but  soon  this  was  proved  a clumsy  and 
inconvenient  method  of  hanging  a door,  and  hinges 
more  simple  in  one  way,  and  yet  more  ornate,  came  into 
fashion.  Iron  hinges  were  found  most  useful  when  they 
extended  for  some  distance  on  to  the  door;  this  strength- 
ened the  door  against  the  invasion  of  pirates,  when  the 


Other  Metals 


113 


church  was  the  natural  citadel  of  refuge  for  the  inhabi- 
tants of  a town,  and  also  held  it  firmly  from  warping. 
At  first  single  straps  of  iron  were  clamped  on:  then  the 
natural  craving  for  beauty  prevailed,  and  the  hinges 
developed,  flowering  out  into  scrolls  and  leaves,  and 
spreading  all  over  the  doors,  as  one  sees  them  con- 
stantly in  mediaeval  examples.  The  general  scheme 
usually  followed  was  a straight  strap  of  iron  flanked 
by  two  curving  horns  like  a crescent,  and  this  motive 
was  elaborated  until  a positive  lace  of  iron,  often  en- 
graved or  moulded,  covered  the  surface  of  the  door, 
as  in  the  wonderful  work  of  Biscornette  at  Notre  Dame 
in  Paris. 

Biscornette  was  a very  mysterious  worker,  and  no 
one  ever  saw  him  constructing  the  hinges.  Reports 
went  round  that  the  devil  was  helping  him,  that  he  had 
sold  his  soul  to  the  King  of  Darkness  in  order  to  enlist 
his  assistance  in  his  work;  an  instance  of  aesthetic 
altruism  almost  commendable  in  its  exotic  zeal.  Certain 
jealous  artificers  even  went  so  far  as  to  break  off  bits  of 
the  meandering  iron,  to  test  it,  but  with  no  result;  they 
could  not  decide  whether  it  was  cast  or  wrought.  Later 
a legend  grew  up  explaining  the  reason  why  the  central 
door  was  not  as  ornate  as  the  side  doors:  the  story  was 
that  the  devil  was  unable  to  assist  Biscornette  on  this 
door  because  it  was  the  aperture  through  which  the 
Host  passed  in  processions.  It  is  more  likely,  however, 
that  the  doors  were  originally  uniform,  and  that  the 
iron  was  subsequently  removed  for  some  other  reason. 


114  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  design  is  supposed  to  represent  the  Earthly  Para- 
dise. Sauval  says:  “ The  sculptured  birds  and  orna- 
ments are  marvellous.  They  are  made  of  wrought  iron, 
the  invention  of  Biscornette  and  which  died  with  him. 
He  worked  the  iron  with  an  almost  incredible  industry, 
rendering  it  flexible  and  tractable,  and  gave  it  all  the 
forms  and  scrolls  he  wished,  with  a ‘douceur  et  une 
gentillesse  ’ which  surprised  and  astonished  all  the 
smiths.”  The  iron  master  Gaegart  broke  off  fragments  of 
the  iron,  and  no  member  of  the  craft  has  ever  been  able 
to  state  with  certainty  just  how  the  work  was  accom- 
plished. Some  think  that  it  is  cast,  and  then  treated 
with  the  file;  others  say  that  it  must  have  been  executed 
by  casting  entire,  with  no  soldering.  In  any  case,  the 
secret  will  never  be  divulged,  for  no  one  was  in  the  con- 
fidence of  Biscornette. 

Norman  blacksmiths  and  workers  in  wrought  iron 
were  more  plentiful  than  goldsmiths.  They  had,  in 
those  warlike  times,  more  call  for  arms  and  the  massive 
products  of  the  forge  than  for  gaudy  jewels  and  table 
appointments.  One  of  the  doors  of  St.  Alban’s  Abbey 
displays  the  skill  of  Norman  smiths  dealing  with  this 
stalwart  form  of  ornament. 

Among  special  artists  in  iron  whose  names  have  sur- 
vived is  that  of  Jehan  Tonquin,  in  1388.  Earlier  than 
that,  a cutler,  Thomas  de  Fieuvillier,  is  mentioned,  as 
having  flourished  about  1330. 

Elaborate  iron  work  is  rare  in  Germany ; the  Germans 
always  excelled  rather  in  bronze  than  in  the  sterner 


biscornette’s  DOORS  AT  PARIS 


Other  Metals 


115 


metal.  At  St.  Ursula’s  in  Cologne  there  are  iron  floriated 
hinges,  but  the  design  and  idea  are  French,  and  not 
native. 

One  may  usually  recognize  a difference  between 
French  and  English  wrought  iron,  for  the  French  is 
often  in  detached  pieces,  not  an  outgrowth  of  the  actual 
hinge  itself,  and  when  this  is  found  in  England,  it  indi- 
cates French  work. 

Ornaments  in  iron  were  sometimes  cut  out  of  flat 
sheet  metal,  and  then  hammered  into  form.  In  stamping 
this  flat  work  with  embossed  effect,  the  smith  had  to 
work  while  the  iron  was  hot,  — as  Sancho  Panza  ex- 
pressed it,  “ Praying  to  God  and  hammering  away.” 
Dies  were  made,  after  a time,  into  which  the  design  could 
be  beaten  with  less  effort  than  in  the  original  method. 

One  of  the  quaintest  of  iron  doors  is  at  Krems,  where 
the  gate  is  made  up  of  square  sheets  of  iron,  cut  into 
rude  pierced  designs,  giving  scenes  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  hammered  up  so  as  to  be  slightly  embossed. 

The  Guild  of  Blacksmiths  in  Florence  flourished  as 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century.  It  covered  workers 
in  many  metals,  copper,  iron,  brass,  and  pewter  in- 
cluded. Among  the  rules  of  the  Guild  was  one  permitting 
members  to  work  for  ready  money  only.  They  were 
not  allowed  to  advertise  by  street  crying,  and  were 
fined  if  they  did  so.  The  Arms  of  the  Guild  was  a pair 
of  furnace  tongs  upon  a white  field.  Among  the  products 
of  the  forge  most  in  demand  were  the  iron  window- 
gratings  so  invariable  on  all  houses,  and  called  by 


116  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Michelangelo  “ kneeling  windows,”  on  account  of  the 
bulging  shape  of  the  lower  parts. 

One  famous  iron  worker  carried  out  the  law  of  the 
Guild  both  in  spirit  and  letter  to  the  extent  of  insisting 
upon  payment  in  advance!  This  was  Nicolo  Grosso, 
who  worked  about  1499.  Vasari  calls  him  the  “ money 
grabber.”  His  specialty  was  to  make  the  beautiful 
torch  holders  and  lanterns  such  as  one  sees  on  the  Strozzi 
Palace  and  in  the  Bargello. 

In  England  there  were  Guilds  of  Blacksmiths;  in 
Middlesex  one  was  started  in  1434,  and  members  were 
known  as  “ in  the  worship  of  St.  Eloi.”  Members  were 
alluded  to  as  “ Brethren  and  Sisteren,”  — this  term 
would  fill  a much  felt  vacancy!  Some  of  the  Guilds 
exacted  fines  from  all  members  who  did  not  pay  a proper 
proportion  of  their  earnings  to  the  Church. 

Another  general  use  of  iron  for  artistic  purposes  was 
in  the  manufacture  of  grilles.  Grilles  were  used  in 
France  and  England  in  cathedrals.  The  earliest  Chris- 
tian grille  is  a pierced  bronze  screen  in  the  Church  of 
the  Nativity  in  Bethlehem. 

In  Hildesheim  is  an  original  form  of  grille;  the  leaves 
and  rosettes  in  the  design  are  pierced,  instead  of  being 
beaten  up  into  bosses.  This  probably  came  from  the 
fact  that  the  German  smith  did  not  understand  the 
Frankish  drawing,  and  supposed  that  the  shaded  por- 
tions of  the  work  were  intended  to  be  open  work.  The 
result,  however,  is  most  happy,  and  a new  feature  was 
thus  introduced  into  grille  work. 


WROUGHT  IRON  FROM  THE  BARGELLO,  FLORENCE 


Other  Metals 


117 


Many  grilles  were  formed  by  the  smith’s  taking  an 
iron  bar  and,  under  the  intense  heat,  splitting  it  into 
various  branches,  each  of  which  should  be  twisted  in  a 
different  way.  Another  method  was  to  use  the  single 
slighter  bar  for  the  foundation  of  the  design,  and  welding 
on  other  volutes  of  similar  thickness  to  make  the  scroll 
work  associated  with  wrought  iron. 

Some  of  the  smiths  who  worked  at  Westminster  Abbey 
are  known  by  name;  Master  Henry  Lewis,  in  1259, 
made  the  iron  work  for  the  tomb  of  Henry  III.  A certain 
iron  fragment  is  signed  Gilibertus.  The  iron  on  the  tomb 
of  Queen  Eleanor  is  by  Thomas  de  Leighton,  in  1294. 
Lead  workers  also  had  a place  assigned  to  them  in  the 
precincts,  which  was  known  as  “ the  Plumbery.”  In 
1431  Master  Roger  Johnson  was  enjoined  to  arrest  or 
press  smiths  into  service  in  order  to  finish  the  ironwork 
on  the  tomb  of  Edward  IV. 

Probably  the  most  famous  use  of  iron  in  Spain  is  in 
the  stupendous  “ rejas ,”  or  chancel  screens  of  wrought 
iron;  but  these  are  nearly  all  of  a late  Renaissance  style, 
and  hardly  come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume.  The 
requirements  of  Spanish  cathedrals,  too,  for  wrought 
iron  screens  for  all  the  side  chapels,  made  plenty  of 
work  for  the  iron  masters.  In  fact,  the  “ rejeros,”  or 
iron  master,  was  as  regular  an  adjunct  to  a cathedral 
as  an  architect  or  a painter.  Knockers  were  often  very 
handsome  in  Spain,  and  even  nail  heads  were  decorated. 

An  interesting  specimen  of  iron  work  is  the  grille  that 
surrounds  the  tomb  of  the  Scaligers  in  Verona.  It  is 


118  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


not  a hard  stiff  structure,  but  is  composed  of  circular 
forms,  each  made  separately,  and  linked  together  with 
narrow  bands,  so  that  the  construction  is  flexible,  and  is 
more  like  a gigantic  piece  of  chain  mail  than  an  iron 
fence. 

Quentin  Matsys  was  known  as  the  “ blacksmith  of 
Antwerp/7  and  is  reported  to  have  left  his  original  work 
among  metals  to  become  a painter.  This  was  done  in 
order  to  marry  the  lady  of  his  choice,  for  she  refused  to 
join  her  fate  to  that  of  a craftsman.  She,  however,  was 
ready  to  marry  a painter.  Quentin,  therefore;  gave  up 
his  hammer  and  anvil,  and  began  to  paint  Madonnas 
that  he  might  prosper  in  his  suit.  Some  authorities,  how- 
ever, laugh  at  this  story,  and  claim  that  the  specimens 
of  iron  work  which  are  shown  as  the  early  works  of 
Matsys  date  from  a time  when  he  would  have  been 
only  ten  or  twelve  years  old,  and  that  they  must  there- 
fore have  been  the  work  of  his  father,  Josse  Matsys, 
who  was  a locksmith.  The  well-cover  in  Antwerp,  near 
the  cathedral,  is  always  known  as  Quentin  Matsys7 
well.  It  is  said  that  this  was  not  constructed  until  1470, 
while  Quentin  was  born  in  1466. 

The  iron  work  of  the  tomb  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
in  Windsor,  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Quentin 
Matsys,  and  is  considered  the  finest  grille  in  England. 
It  is  wrought  with  such  skill  and  delicacy  that  it  is  more 
like  the  product  of  the  goldsmith’s  art  than  that  of  the 
blacksmith. 

Another  object  of  utility  which  was  frequently 


Other  Metals 


119 


ornamented  was  the  key.  The  Key  of  State,  especially, 
was  so  treated.  Some  are  nine  or  ten  inches  long,  having 


MOORISH  KEYS,  SEVILLE 

been  used  to  present  to  visiting  grandees  as  typical  of 
the  “ Freedom  of  the  City.”  Keys  were  often  decorated 


120  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


with  handles  having  the  appearance  of  Gothic  tracery. 
In  an  old  book  published  in  1795,  there  is  an  account  of 
the  miraculous  Keys  of  St.  Denis,  made  of  silver,  which 
“ they  apply  to  the  faces  of  these  persons  who  have  been 
so  unfortunate  as  to  be  bitten  by  mad  dogs,  and  who 
received  certain  and  immediate  relief  in  only  touching 
them.”  A key  in  Valencia,  over  nine  inches  in  length, 
is  richly  embossed,  while  the  wards  are  composed  of  deco- 
rative letters,  looking  at  first  like  an  elaborate  sort  of 
filigree,  but  finally  resolving  themselves  into  the  auto- 
graphic statement:  “ It  was  made  by  Ahmed  Ahsan.” 
It  is  a delicate  piece  of  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century 
work  in  iron. 

Another  old  Spanish  key  has  a Hebrew  inscription 
round  the  handle:  “ The  King  of  Kings  will  open:  the 
King  of  the  whole  Earth  will  enter,”  and,  in  the  wards, 
in  Spanish,  “ God  will  open,  the  King  will  enter.” 

The  iron  smiths  of  Barcelona  formed  a Guild  in  the 
thirteenth  century:  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  more  of 
their  work  could  not  have  descended  to  us. 

A frank  treatment  of  locks  and  bolts,  using  them  as 
decorations,  instead  of  treating  them  as  disgraces,  upon 
the  surface  of  a door,  is  the  only  way  to  make  them  in 
any  degree  effective.  As  Pugin  has  said,  it  is  possible 
to  use  nails,  screws,  and  rivets,  so  that  they  become 
“ beautiful  studs  and  busy  enrichments.”  Florentine 
locksmiths  were  specially  famous;  there  also  was  a 
great  fashion  for  damascened  work  in  that  city,  and  it 
was  executed  with  much  elegance. 


Other  Metals 


121 


In  blacksmith’s  work,  heat  was  used  with  the  hammer 
at  each  stage  of  the  work,  while  in  armourer’s  or  lock- 
smith’s work,  heat  was  employed  only  at  first,  to  achieve 
the  primitive  forms,  and  then  the  work  was  carried  on 
with  chisel  and  file  on  the  cold  metal.  Up  to  the  four- 
teenth century  the  work  was  principally  that  of  the 
blacksmith,  and  after  that,  of  the  locksmith. 

The  mention  of  arms  and  armour  in  a book  of  these 
proportions  must  be  very  slight;  the  subject  is  a vast 
one,  and  no  effort  to  treat  it  with  system  would  be 
satisfactory  in  so  small  a space.  But  a few  curious  and 
significant  facts  relating  to  the  making  of  armour  may 
be  cited. 

The  rapid  decay  of  iron  through  rust  — rapid,  that 
is  to  say,  in  comparison  with  other  metals  — is  often 
found  to  have  taken  place  when  the  discovery  of  old 
armour  has  been  made;  so  that  gold  ornaments,  be- 
longing to  a sword  or  other  weapon,  may  be  found  in 
excavating,  while  the  iron  which  formed  the  actual 
weapon  has  disappeared. 

Primitive  armour  was  based  on  a leather  foundation, 
hence  the  name  cuirass,  was  derived  from  cuir  (leather). 
In  a former  book  I have  alluded  to  the  armour  of  the 
nomadic  tribes,  which  is  described  by  Pausanias  as 
coarse  coats  of  mail  made  out  of  the  hoofs  of  horses,  split, 
and  laid  overlapping  each  other,  making  them  “ some- 
thing like  dragon’s  scales,”  as  Pausanias  explains; 
adding  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  unfamiliar  with 
dragons’  anatomy,  “ Whoever  has  not  yet  seen  a dragon, 


122  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


has,  at  any  rate,  seen  a pine  cone  still  green.  These  are 
equally  like  in  appearance  to  the  surface  of  this  armour.” 
These  horny  scales  of  tough  hoofs  undoubtedly  sug- 
gested, at  a later  date,  the  use  of  thick  leather  as  a 
form  of  protection,  and  the  gradual  evolution  may  be 
imagined. 

The  art  of  the  armourer  was  in  early  mediaeval  times 
the  art  of  the  chain  maker.  The  chain  coat,  or  coats 
of  mail,  reached  in  early  days  as  far  as  the  knees.  Finally 
this  developed  into  an  entire  covering  for  the  man,  with 
head  gear  as  well;  of  course  this  form  of  armour  allowed 
of  no  real  ornamentation,  for  there  was  no  space  larger 
than  the  links  of  the  chain  upon  which  to  bestow  deco- 
ration. Each  link  of  a coat  of  mail  was  brought  round 
into  a ring,  the  ends  overlapped,  and  a little  rivet  in- 
serted. Warriors  trusted  to  no  solder  or  other  mode  of 
fastening.  All  the  magnificence  of  knightly  apparel 
was  concentrated  in  the  surcoat,  a splendid  embroidered 
or  gem-decked  tunic  to  the  knees,  which  was  worn  over 
the  coat  of  mail.  These  surcoats  were  often  trimmed 
with  costly  furs,  ermine  or  vair,  the  latter  being  similar 
to  what  we  now  call  squirrel,  being  part  gray  and  part 
white.  Cinderella’s  famous  slipper  was  made  of  “ vair,” 
which,  through  a misapprehension  in  being  translated 
“ verre,”  has  become  known  as  a glass  slipper. 

After  a bit,  the  makers  of  armour  discovered  that 
much  tedious  labor  in  chain  making  might  be  spared, 
if  one  introduced  a large  plate  of  solid  metal  on  the 
chest  and  back.  This  was  in  the  thirteenth  century. 


Other  Metals 


123 


124  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  elbows  and  knees  were  also  treated  in  this  way,  and 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  principle  of  armour  had 
changed  to  a set  of  separate  plates  fastened  together 
by  links.  This  was  the  evolution  from  mail  to  plate 
armour.  A description  of  Charlemagne  as  he  appeared 
on  the  field  of  battle,  in  his  armour,  is  given  by  the 
Monk  of  St.  Gall,  his  biographer,  and  is  dramatic. 
“ Then  could  be  seen  the  iron  Charles,  helmeted  with 
an  iron  helmet,  his  iron  breast  and  broad  shoulders 
protected  with  an  iron  breast  plate;  an  iron  spear  was 
raised  on  high  in  his  left  hand,  his  right  always  rested 
on  his  unconquered  iron  falchion.  . . . His  shield  was  all 
of  iron,  his  charger  was  iron  coloured  and  iron  hearted. 
. . . The  fields  and  open  spaces  were  filled  with  iron; 
a people  harder  than  iron  paid  universal  homage  to 
the  hardness  of  iron.  The  horror  of  the  dungeon  seemed 
less  than  the  bright  gleam  of  iron.  ‘ Oh,  the  iron! 
woe  for  the  iron!  ’ was  the  confused  cry  that  rose  from 
the  citizens.  The  strong  walls  shook  at  the  sight  of  iron : 
the  resolution  of  young  and  old  fell  before  the  iron.” 

By  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  and  early  fifteenth 
centuries,  whole  suits  of  armour  were  almost  invariable, 
and  then  came  the  opportunity  for  the  goldsmith,  the 
damascener,  and  the  niellist.  Some  of  the  leading 
artists,  especially  in  Italy,  were  enlisted  in  designing 
and  decorating  what  might  be  called  the  armour-de-luxe 
of  the  warrior  princes!  The  armour  of  horses  was  as 
ornate  as  that  of  the  riders. 

The  sword  was  always  the  most  imposingly  orna- 


Other  Metals 


125 


mented  part  of  a knight’s  equipment,  and  underwent 
various  modifications  which  are  interesting  to  note. 
At  first,  it  was  the  only  weapon  invariably  at  hand: 
it  was  enormously  large,  and  two  hands  were  necessary 
in  wielding  it.  As  the  arquebuse  came  into  use,  the 
sword  took  a secondary  position:  it  became  lighter  and 
smaller.  And  ever  since  1510  it  is  a curious  fact  that  the 
decorations  of  swords  have  been  designed  to  be  examined 
when  the  sword  hangs  with  the  point  down;  the  earlier 
ornament  was  adapted  to  being  seen  at  its  best  when 
the  sword  was  held  upright,  as  in  action.  Perhaps  the 
later  theory  of  decoration  is  more  sensible,  for  it  is 
certain  that  neither  a warrior  nor  his  opponent  could 
have  occasion  to  admire  fine  decoration  at  a time  when 
the  sword  was  drawn!  That  the  arts  should  be  em- 
ployed to  satisfy  the  eye  in  times  of  peace,  sufficed  the 
later  wearers  of  ornamented  swords. 

Toledo  blades  have  always  been  famous,  and  rank 
first  among  the  steel  knives  of  the  world.  Even  in 
Roman  times,  and  of  course  under  the  Moors,  Toledo 
led  in  this  department.  The  process  of  making  a Toledo 
blade  was  as  follows.  There  was  a special  fine  white 
sand  on  the  banks  of  the  Tagus,  which  was  used  to 
sprinkle  on  the  blade  when  it  was  red  hot,  before  it  was 
sent  on  to  the  forger’s.  When  the  blade  was  red  hot 
from  being  steeped  four-fifths  of  its  length  in  flame,  it 
was  dropped  point  first  into  a bucket  of  water.  If  it  was 
not  perfectly  straight  when  it  was  withdrawn,  it  was 
beaten  into  shape,  more  sand  being  first  put  upon  it. 


126  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


After  this  the  remaining  fifth  of  the  blade  was  subjected 
to  the  fire,  and  was  rubbed  with  suet  while  red  hot; 


DAMASCENED  HELMET 


the  final  polish  of  the  whole  sword  was  produced  by 
emery  powder  on  wooden  wheels. 

Damascening  was  a favourite  method  of  ornamenting 
choice  suits  of  armour,  and  was  also  applied  to  bronzes, 
cabinets,  and  such  pieces  of  metal  as  lent  themselves 
to  decoration.  The  process  began  like  niello:  little 


Other  Metals 


127 


channels  for  the  design  were  hollowed  out,  in  the  iron 
or  bronze,  and  then  a wire  of  brass,  silver,  or  gold,  was 
laid  in  the  groove,  and  beaten  into  place,  being  after- 
wards polished  until  the  surface  was  uniform  all  over. 
One  great  feature  of  the  art  was  to  sink  the  incision  a 
little  broader  at  the  base  than  at  the  top,  and  then 
to  force  the  softer  metal  in,  so  that,  by  this  undercutting, 
it  was  held  firmly  in  place.  Cellini  tells  of  his  first  view 
of  damascened  steel  blades.  “ I chanced/’  he  says,  “ to 
become  possessed  of  certain  little  Turkish  daggers,  the 
handle  of  which  together  with  the  guard  and  blade  were 
ornamented  with  beautiful  Oriental  leaves,  engraved 
with  a chisel,  and  inlaid  with  gold.  This  kind  of  work 
differed  materially  from  any  which  I had  as  yet  prac- 
tised or  attempted,  nevertheless  I was  seized  with  a 
great  desire  to  try  my  hand  at  it,  and  I succeeded  so 
admirably  that  I produced  articles  infinitely  finer  and 
more  solid  than  those  of  the  Turks.”  Benvenuto  had 
such  a humble  opinion  of  his  own  powers!  But  when 
one  considers  the  pains  and  labour  expended  upon  the 
arts  of  damascening  and  niello,  one  regrets  that  the 
workers  had  not  been  inspired  to  attempt  dentistry, 
and  save  so  much  unnecessary  individual  suffering! 

On  the  Sword  of  Boabdil  are  many  inscriptions,  among 
them,  “ God  is  clement  and  merciful,”  and  “ God  is 
gifted  with  the  best  memory.”  No  two  sentiments 
could  be  better  calculated  to  keep  a conqueror  from 
undue  excesses. 

Mercia  was  a headquarters  for  steel  and  other  metals 


128  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


in  the  thirteenth  century.  Seville  was  even  then  famous 
for  its  steel,  also,  and  in  the  words  of  a contemporary 
writer,  “ the  steel  which  is  made  in  Seville  is  most 
excellent;  it  would  take  too  much  time  to  enumerate 
the  delicate  objects  of  every  kind  which  are  made  in  this 
town.”  King  Don  Pedro,  in  his  will,  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  bequeathes  to  his  son,  his  “ Castilian  sword, 
which  I had  made  here  in  Seville,  ornamented  with 
stones  and  gold.”  Swords  were  baptized;  they  were 
named,  and  seemed  to  have  a veritable  personality 


MOORISH  SWORD 


of  their  own.  The  sword  of  Charlemagne  was  christened 
“ Joyeuse,”  while  we  all  know  of  Arthur's  Excalibur; 
Roland's  sword  was  called  Durandel.  Saragossa  steel 
was  esteemed  for  helmets,  and  the  sword  of  James  of 
Arragon  in  1230,  “ a very  good  sword,  and  lucky  to  those 
who  handled  it,”  was  from  Monzon.  The  Cid's  sword 
was  similar,  and  named  Tizona.  There  is  a story  of  a 
Jew  who  went  to  the  grave  of  the  Cid  to  steal  his  sword, 
which,  according  to  custom,  was  interred  with  the 
owner:  the  corpse  is  said  to  have  resented  the  intrusion 
by  unsheathing  the  weapon,  which  miracle  so  amazed 
the  Jew  that  he  turned  Christian! 


Other  Metals 


129 


German  armour  was  popular.  Cologne  swords  were 
great  favourites  in  England.  King  Arthur’s  sword  was 
one  of  these,  — 

“ For  all  of  Coleyne  was  the  blade 
And  all  the  hilt  of  precious  stone.” 

In  the  British  Museum  is  a wonderful  example  of  a 
wooden  shield,  painted  on  a gesso  ground,  the  subject 
being  a Knight  kneeling  before  a lady,  and  the  motto: 
“ Vous  ou  la  mort.”  These  wooden  shields  were  used 
in  Germany  until  the  end  of  Maximilian’s  reign. 

The  helmet,  or  Heaume,  entirely  concealed  the  face, 
so  that  for  purposes  of  identification,  heraldic  badges 
and  shields  were  displayed.  Later,  crests  were  also  used 
on  the  helmets,  for  the  same  purpose. 

Certain  armourers  were  very  well  known  in  their  day, 
and  were  as  famous  as  artists  in  other  branches.  William 
Austin  made  a superb  suit  for  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
while  Thomas  Stevyns  was  the  coppersmith  who  worked 
on  the  same,  and  Bartholomew  Lambspring  was  the 
polisher.  There  was  a famous  master-armourer  at 
Greenwich  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth,  named  Jacob: 
some  important  arms  of  that  period  bear  the  inscription, 
“ Made  by  me  Jacob.”  There  is  some  question  whether 
he  was  the  same  man  as  Jacob  Topf  who  came  from 
Innsbruck,  and  became  court  armourer  in  England  in 
1575.  Another  famous  smith  was  William  Pickering, 
who  made  exquisitely  ornate  suits  of  what  we  might 
call  full-dress  armour. 


130  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Colossal  cannon  were  made:  two  celebrated  guns 
may  be  seen,  the  monster  at  Ghent,  called  Mad  Meg, 
and  the  huge  cannon  at  Edinburgh  Castle,.  Mons  Meg, 
dating  from  1476.  These  guns  are  composed  of  steel 
coils  or  spirals,  afterwards  welded  into  a solid  mass 
instead  of  being  cast.  They  are  mammoth  examples  of 
the  art  of  the  blacksmith  and  the  forge.  In  Germany 
cannon  were  made  of  bronze,  and  these  were  simply 
cast. 

Cross  bows  obtained  great  favour  in  Spain,  even  after 
the  arquebuse  had  come  into  use.  It  was  considered 
a safer  weapon  to  the  one  who  used  it.  An  old  writer 
in  1644  remarks,  “ It  has  never  been  known  that  a 
man’s  life  has  been  lost  by  breaking  the  string  or  cord, 
two  things  which  are  dangerous,  but  not  to  a considerable 
extent,”  . . . and  he  goes  on  “ once  set,  its  shot  is 
secure,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  arquebus,  which 
often  misses  fire.”  There  is  a letter  from  Ambassador 
Salimas  to  the  King  of  Hungary,  in  which  he  says: 
“ I went  to  Balbastro  and  there  occupied  myself  in 
making  a pair  of  cross  bows  for  your  Majesty.  I be- 
lieve they  will  satisfy  the  desires  which  were  required 
...  as  your  Majesty  is  annoyed  when  they  do  not  go 
off  as  you  wish.”  It  would  seem  as  though  his  Majesty’s 
“ annoyance  ” was  justifiable;  imagine  any  one  de- 
pendent upon  the  shot  of  a cross  bow,  and  then  having 
the  weapon  fail  to  “ go  off!  ” Nothing  could  be  more 
discouraging. 

There  is  a contemporary  treatise  which  is  full  of  in- 


ENAMELLED  SUIT  OF  ARMOUR 


Other  Metals 


131 


terest,  entitled,  “ How  a Man  shall  be  Armed  at  his 
ease  when  he  shall  Fight  on  Foot.”  It  certainly  was 
a good  deal  of  a contract  to  render  a knight  comfortable 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  could  see  or  breathe  only 
imperfectly,  and  was  weighted  down  by  iron  at  every 
point.  This  complete  covering  with  metal  added  much 
to  the  actual  noise  of  battle.  Froissart  alludes  to  the 
fact  that  in  the  battle  of  Rosebeque,  in  1382,  the  ham- 
mering on  the  helmets  made  a noise  which  was  equal 
to  that  of  all  the  armourers  of  Paris  and  Brussels  working 
together.  And  yet  the  strength  needed  to  sport  such 
accoutrements  seems  to  have  been  supplied.  Leon 
Alberti  of  Florence,  when  clad  in  a full  suit  of  armour, 
could  spring  with  ease  upon  a galloping  horse,  and  it 
is  related  that  Aldobrandini,  even  with  his  right  arm 
disabled,  could  cleave  straight  through  his  opponent’s 
helmet  and  head,  down  to  the  collar  bone,  with  a single 
stroke! 

One  of  the  richest  suits  of  armour  in  the  world  is 
to  be  seen  at  Windsor;  it  is  of  Italian  workmanship, 
and  is  made  of  steel,  blued  and  gilded,  with  wonderfully 
minute  decorations  of  damascene  and  applique  work. 
This  most  ornate  armour  was  made  chiefly  for  show, 
and  not  for  the  field:  for  knights  to  appear  in  their 
official  capacity,  and  for  jousting  at  tournaments,  which 
were  practically  social  events.  In  the  days  of  Henry 
VIII.  a chronicler  tells  of  a j ouster  who  “ tourneyed 
in  harneyse  all  of  gilt  from  the  head  piece  to  the  sabat- 
tons.”  Many  had  “ tassels  of  fine  gold  ” on  their  suits. 


132  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Italian  weapons  called  “ lasquenets  ” were  very 
deadly.  In  a letter  from  Albrecht  Diirer  to  Pirckheimer, 
he  alludes  to  them,  as  having  “ roncions  with  two 
hundred  and  eighteen  points:  and  if  they  pink  a man 
with  any  of  these,  the  man  is  dead,  as  they  are  all 
poisoned.” 

Bronze  is  composed  of  copper  with  an  alloy  of  about 
eight  or  ten  per  cent,  of  tin.  The  fusing  of  these  two 
metals  produces  the  brown  glossy  substance  called 
bronze,  which  is  so  different  from  either  of  them.  The 
art  of  the  bronze  caster  is  a very  old  and  interesting 
one.  The  method  of  proceeding  has  varied  very  little 
with  the  centuries.  A statue  to  be  cast  either  in  silver 
or  bronze  would  be  treated  in  the  following  manner. 

A general  semblance  of  the  finished  work  was  first 
set  up  in  clay;  then  over  this  a layer  of  wax  was  laid, 
as  thick  as  the  final  bronze  was  intended  to  be.  The 
wax  was  then  worked  with  tools  and  by  hand  until 
it  took  on  the  exact  form  designed  for  the  finished 
product.  Then  a crust  of  clay  was  laid  over  the  wax; 
on  this  were  added  other  coatings  of  clay,  until  quite 
a thick  shell  of  clay  surrounded  the  wax.  The  whole 
was  then  subjected  to  fervent  heat,  and  the  wax  all 
melted  out,  leaving  a space  between  the  core  and  the 
outer  shell.  Into  this  space  the  liquid  bronze  was  poured, 
and  after  it  had  cooled  and  hardened  the  outer  shell 
was  broken  off,  leaving  the  statue  in  bronze  exactly 
as  the  wax  had  been. 

Cellini  relates  an  experience  in  Paris,  with  an  old  man 


Other  Metals 


133 


eighty  years  of  age,  one  of  the  most  famous  bronze  casters 
whom  he  had  engaged  to  assist  him  in  his  work  for 
Francis  I.  Something  went  wTrong  with  the  furnace, 
and  the  poor  old  man  was  so  upset  and  “ got  into  such 
a stew  ” that  he  fell  upon  the  floor,  and  Benvenuto  picked 
him  up  fancying  him  to  be  dead:  “ Howbeit,”  explains 
Cellini,  “ I had  a great  beaker  of  the  choicest  wine 
brought  him,  ...  I mixed  a large  bumper  of  wine 
for  the  old  man,  who  was  groaning  away  like  anything, 
and  I bade  him  most  winning-wise  to  drink,  and  said: 
‘ Drink,  my  father,  for  in  yonder  furnace  has  entered 
in  a devil,  who  is  making  all  this  mischief,  and,  look 
you,  we’ll  just  let  him  bide  there  a couple  of  days,  till 
he  gets  jolly  well  bored,  and  then  will  you  and  I together 
in  the  space  of  three  hours  firing,  make  this  metal  run, 
like  so  much  batter,  and  without  any  exertion  at  all.’ 
The  old  fellow  drank  and  then  I brought  him  some  little 
dainties  to  eat:  meat  pasties  they  were,  nicely  peppered, 
and  I made  him  take  down  four  full  goblets  of  wine. 
He  was  a man  quite  out  of  the  ordinary,  this,  and  a most 
lovable  old  thing,  and  what  with  my  caresses  and  the 
virtue  of  the  wine,  I found  him  soon  moaning  away 
as  much  with  joy  as  he  had  moaned  before  with  grief.” 
Cellini  displayed  in  this  incident  his  belief  in  the  great 
principle  that  the  artist  should  find  pleasure  in  his  work 
in  order  to  impart  to  that  work  a really  satisfactory 
quality,  and  did  exactly  the  right  thing  at  the  right 
minute;  instead  of  trusting  to  a faltering  effort  in  a 
disheartened  man,  he  cheered  the  old  bronze  founder 


134  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


up  to  such  a pitch  that  after  a day  or  two  the  work  was 
completed  with  triumph  and  joy  to  both. 

In  the  famous  statue  of  Perseus,  Cellini  experienced 
much  difficulty  in  keeping  the  metal  liquid.  The  account 
of  this  thrilling  experience,  told  in  his  matchless  auto- 
biography, is  too  long  to  quote  at  this  point;  an  inter- 
esting item,  however,  should  be  noted.  Cellini  used 
pewter  as  a solvent  in  the  bronze  which  had  hardened 
in  the  furnace.  “ Apprehending  that  the  cause  of  it 
was,  that  the  fusibility  of  the  metal  was  impaired,  by 
the  violence  of  the  fire,”  he  says,  “ I ordered  all  my  dishes 
and  porringers,  which  were  in  number  about  two  hundred, 
to  be  placed  one  by  one  before  my  tubes,  and  part  of  them 
to  be  thrown  into  the  furnace,  upon  which  all  present 
perceived  that  my  bronze  was  completely  dissolved, 
and  that  my  mould  was  filling,”  and,  such  was  the  relief 
that  even  the  loss  of  the  entire  pewter  service  of  the 
family  was  sustained  with  equanimity;  the  family, 
“ without  delay,  procured  earthen  vessels  to  supply  the 
place  of  the  pewter  dishes  and  porringers,  and  we  all 
dined  together  very  cheerfully.”  Edgecumb  Staley, 
in  the  “ Guilds  of  Florence,”  speaks  of  the  “pewter 
fattened  Perseus:  ” this  is  worthy  of  Carlyle. 

Early  Britons  cast  statues  in  brass.  Speed  tells  of 
King  Cadwollo,  who  died  in  677,  being  buried  “ at  St. 
Martin's  church  near  Ludgate,  his  image  great  and 
terrible,  triumphantly  riding  on  horseback,  artificially 
cast  in  brass,  was  placed  on  the  Western  gate  of  the 
city,  to  the  further  fear  and  terror  of  the  Saxons!  ” 


Other  Metals 


135 


In  1562  Bartolomeo  Morel,  who  made  the  celebrated 
statue  of  the  Giralda  Tower  in  Seville,  executed  a fifteen 
branched  candelabrum  for  the  Cathedral.  It  is  a rich 
Renaissance  design,  in  remarkably  chaste  and  good 
lines,  and  holds  fifteen  statuettes,  which  are  displaced 
to  make  room  for  the  candles  only  during  the  last  few 
days  of  Lent. 

A curious  form  of  mediaeval  trinket  was  the  perfume 
ball;  this  consisted  of  a perforated  ball  of  copper  or 
brass,  often  ornamented  with  damascene,  and  intended 
to  contain  incense  to  perfume  the  air,  the  balls  being 
suspended. 

The  earliest  metal  statuary  in  England  was  rendered 
in  latten,  a mixed  metal  of  a yellow  colour,  the  exact 
recipe  for  which  has  not  survived.  The  recumbent 
effigies  of  Henry  III.  and  Queen  Eleanor  are  made  of 
latten,  and  the  tomb  of  the  Black  Prince  in  Canterbury 
is  the  same,  beautifully  chased.  Many  of  these  and 
other  tombs  were  probably  originally  covered  with 
gilding,  painting,  and  enamel. 

The  effigies  of  Richard  II.  and  his  queen,  Anne  of 
Bohemia,  were  made  during  the  reign  of  the  monarch; 
a contemporary  document  states  that  “ Sir  John  Inno- 
cent paid  another  part  of  a certain  indenture  made 
between  the  King  and  Nicolas  Broker  and  Geoffrey  Prest, 
coppersmiths  of  London,  for  the  making  of  two  images, 
likenesses  of  the  King  and  Queen,  of  copper  and  latten, 
gilded  upon  the  said  marble  tomb.” 

There  are  many  examples  of  bronze  gates  in  ecclesi- 


136  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


astical  architecture.  The  gates  of  St.  Paolo  Fuori  le 
Mura  in  Rome  were  made  in  1070,  in  Constantinople, 
by  Stauracius  the  Founder.  Many  authorities  think 
that  those  at  St.  Mark’s  in  Venice  were  similarly  pro- 
duced. The  bronze  doors  in  Rome  are  composed  of 
fifty-four  small  designs,  not  in  relief,  but  with  the  out- 
lines of  the  subjects  inlaid  with  silver.  The  doors  are  in 
Byzantine  taste. 

The  bronze  doors  at  Hildesheim  differ  from  nearly 
all  other  such  portals,  in  the  elemental  principle  of 
design.  Instead  of  being  divided  into  small  panels,  they 
are  simply  blocked  off  into  seven  long  horizontal  com- 
partments on  each  side,  and  then  filled  with  a pictorial 
arrangement  of  separate  figures;  only  three  or  four  in 
each  panel,  widely  spaced,  and  on  a background  of  very 
low  relief.  The  figures  are  applied,  at  scattered  distances 
apart,  and  are  in  unusually  high  modelling,  in  some 
cases  being  almost  detached  from  the  door.  The  effect 
is  curious  and  interesting  rather  than  strictly  beautiful, 
on  the  whole;  but  in  detail  many  of  the  figures  display 
rare  power  of  plastic  skill,  proportion,  and  action.  They 
are,  at  any  rate,  very  individual : there  are  no  other  doors 
at  all  like  them.  They  are  the  work  of  Bishop  Bern  ward. 

Unquestionably,  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  in 
bronze  of  any  age  is  the  pair  of  gates  by  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  on  the  Baptistery  in  Florence.  Twenty-one 
years  were  devoted  to  their  making,  by  Ghiberti  and  his 
assistants,  with  the  stipulation  that  all  figures  in  the 
design  were  to  be  personal  work  of  the  master,  the 


Other  Metals 


137 


assistants  only  attending  to  secondary  details.  The 
doors  were  in  place  in  April,  1424. 


The  competition  for  the  Baptistery  doors  reads  like 


BRUNELLESCHI’S  COMPETITIVE  PANEL 


a romance,  and  is  familiar  to  most  people  who  know 
anything  of  historic  art.  When  the  young  Ghiberti 
heard  that  the  competition  was  open  to  all,  he  deter- 
mined to  go  to  Florence  and  work  for  the  prize;  in 


138  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


his  own  words:  “When  my  friends  wrote  to  me  that 
the  governors  of  the  Baptistery  .were  sending  for  masters 
whose  skill  in  bronze  working  they  wished  to  prove, 


Ghiberti’s  competitive  panel 


and  that  from  all  Italian  lands  many  maestri  were 
coming,  to  place  themselves  in  this  strife  of  talent,  I 
could  no  longer  forbear,  and  asked  leave  of  Sig.  Malatesta, 
who  let  me  depart.”  The  result  of  the  competition  is 


Other  Metals 


139 


also  given  in  Ghiberti’s  words:  “ The  palm  of  victory 
was  conceded  to  me  by  all  judges,  and  by  those  who 
competed  with  me.  Universally  all  the  glory  was 
given  to  me  without  any  exception.” 

Symonds  considers  the  first  gate  a supreme  accom- 
plishment in  bronze  casting,  but  criticizes  the  other, 
and  usually  more  admired  gate,  as  “ overstepping  the 
limits  that  separate  sculpture  from  painting,”  by 
“ massing  together  figures  in  multitudes  at  three  and 
sometimes  four  distances.  He  tried  to  make  a place  in 
bas-relief  for  perspective.”  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  finds 
fault  with  Ghiberti,  also,  for  working  at  variance  with 
the  severity  of  sculptural  treatment,  by  distributing 
small  figures  in  a spacious  landscape  framework.  It 
was  not  really  in  accordance  with  the  limitations  of  his 
material  to  treat  a bronze  casting  as  Ghiberti  treated 
it,  and  his  example  has  led  many  men  of  inferior  genius 
astray,  although  there  is  no  use  in  denying  that  Ghiberti 
himself  was  clever  enough  to  defy  the  usual  standards 
and  rules. 

Fonts  were  sometimes  made  in  bronze.  There  is  such 
a one  at  Liege  cast  by  Lambert  Patras,  which  stands 
upon  twelve  oxen.  It  is  decorated  with  reliefs  from  the 
Gospels.  This  artist,  Patras,  was  a native  of  Dinant, 
and  lived  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  bronze  font  in 
Hildesheim  is  among  the  most  interesting  late  Roman- 
esque examples  in  Germany.  It  is  a large  deep  basin 
entirely  covered  with  enrichment  of  Scriptural  scenes, 
and  is  supported  by  four  kneeling  figures,  typical  of  the 


140  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


four  Rivers  of  Paradise.  The  conical  cover  is  also  cov- 
ered with  Scriptural  scenes,  and  surmounted  by  a 
foliate  knob.  Among  the  figures  with  which  the  font 
is  covered  are  the  Cardinal  Virtues,  flanked  by  their 
patron  saints.  Didron  considers  this  a most  important 
piece  of  bronze  from  an  iconographic  point  of  view 
theologically  and  poetically.  The  archaic  qualities 
of  the  figures  are  fascinating  and  sometimes  diverting. 
In  the  scene  of  the  Baptism  of  Christ  the  water  is  posi- 
tively trained  to  flow  upwards  in  pyramidal  form,  in 
order  to  reach  nearly  to  the  waist,  while  at  either  side 
it  recedes  to  the  ground  level  again,  — it  has  an  in- 
genuous and  almost  startling  suddenness  in  the  rising 
of  its  flood!  An  interesting  comment  upon  the  preva- 
lence of  early  national  forms  may  be  deduced,  when  one 
observes  that  on  the  table,  at  the  Last  Supper,  there 
lies  a perfectly  shaped  pretzel! 

The  great  bronze  column  constructed  by  St.  Bernward 
at  Hildesheim  has  the  Life  of  Christ  represented  in 
consecutive  scenes  in  a spiral  form,  like  those  orna- 
menting the  column  of  Trajan.  Down  by  Bern  ward’s 
grave  there  is  a spring  which  is  said  to  cure  cripples  and 
rheumatics.  Peasants  visit  Hildesheim  on  saints’  days  in 
order  to  drink  of  it,  and  frequently,  after  one  of  these 
visitations,  crutches  are  found  abandoned  near  by. 

Saxony  was  famous  for  its  bronze  founders,  and  work 
was  sent  forth,  from  this  country,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
all  over  Europe. 

Orcagna’s  tabernacle  at  Or  San  Michele  is,  as  Symonds 


FONT  AT  HILDESHEIM,  12tH  CENTURY 


Other  Metals 


141 


has  expressed  it,  “ a monumental  jewel,”  and  “ an  epit- 
ome of  the  minor  arts  of  mediaeval  Italy.”  On  it  one 
sees  bas-relief  carving,  intaglios,  statuettes,  mosaic,  the 
lapidary’s  art  in  agate;  enamels,  and  gilded  glass,  and 
yet  all  in  good  taste  and  harmony.  The  sculpture  is 
properly  subordinated  to  the  architectonic  principle,  and 
one  can  understand  how  it  is  not  only  the  work  of  a 
goldsmith,  but  of  a painter. 

Of  all  bronze  workers,  perhaps  Peter  Vischer  is 
the  best  known  and  is  certainly  one  of  the  best  deserving 
of  his  wide  fame.  Peter  Vischer  was  born  about  the 
same  time  as  Quentin  Matsys,  between  1460  and  1470. 
He  was  the  most  important  metal  worker  in  Germany. 
He  and  Adam  Kraft,  of  whom  mention  will  be  made  when 
we  come  to  deal  with  sculptural  carving,  were  brought 
up  together  as  boys,  and  “ when  older  boys,  went  with 
one  another  on  all  holidays,  acting  still  as  though  they 
were  apprentices  together.”  Vischer’s  normal  expres- 
sion was  in  Gothic  form.  His  first  design  for  the  wonder- 
ful shrine  of  St.  Sebald  in  Nuremberg  was  made  by 
him  in  1488,  and  is  still  preserved  in  Vienna.  It  is  a 
pure  late-Gothic  canopy,  and  I cannot  help  regretting 
that  the  execution  was  delayed  until  popular  taste 
demanded  more  concession  towards  the  Renaissance, 
and  it  was  resolved  in  1507,  “ to  have  the  Shrine  of  St. 
Sebald  made  of  brass.” 

Therefore,  although  the  general  lines  continue  to  hold 
a Gothic  semblance,  the  shrine  has  many  Renaissance 
features.  Regret,  however,  is  almost  morbid,  in  relation 


142  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


to  such  a perfect  work  of  art.  Italian  feeling  is  evident 
throughout,  and  the  wealth  of  detail  in  figures  and 
foliate  forms  is  magnificent.  The  centre  of  interest  is 
the  little  portrait  statuette  of  Peter  Vischer  himself, 
according  to  his  biographer,  “ as  he  looked,  and  as  he 
daily  went  about  and  worked  in  the  foundry.”  Though 
Peter  had  not  been  to  Italy  himself,  his  son  Hermann 
had  visited  the  historic  land,  and  had  brought  home 
“ artistic  things  that  he  sketched  and  drew,  which 
delighted  his  old  father,  and  were  of  great  use  to  his 
brothers.”  Peter  Vischer  had  three  sons,  who  all 
followed  him  in  the  craft.  His  workshop  must  have 
been  an  ideal  institution  in  its  line. 

Some  remnants  of  Gothic  grotesque  fancy  are  to  be 
seen  on  the  shrine,  although  treated  outwardly  with 
Renaissance  feeling.  A realistic  life-sized  mouse  may 
be  seen  in  one  place,  just  as  if  it  had  run  out  to  inspect 
the  work;  and  the  numbers  of  little  tipsy  “ putti  ” 
who  disport  themselves  in  all  attitudes,  in  perilous  posi- 
tions on  narrow  ledges,  are  full  of  merry  humour. 

The  metal  of  St.  SebakTs  shrine  is  left  as  it  came  from 
the  casting,  and  owes  much  of  its  charm  to  the  lack  of 
filing,  polishing,  and  pointing  usual  in  such  monuments. 
The  molten  living  expression  is  retained.  Only  the 
details  and  spirit  of  the  figures  are  Renaissance;  the 
Gothic  plan  is  hardly  disturbed,  and  the  whole  monu- 
ment is  pleasing  in  proportion.  The  figures  are  ex- 
quisite, especially  that  of  St.  Peter. 

A great  Renaissance  work  in  Germany  was  the  grille 


PORTRAIT  STATUETTE  OF  PETER  YISCHER 


Other  Metals 


143 


of  the  Rathaus  made  for  Nuremberg  by  Peter  Vischer 
the  Younger.  It  was  of  bronze,  the  symmetrical  diapered 
form  of  the  open  work  part  being  supported  by  chaste 
and  dignified  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order.  It  was 
first  designed  by  Peter  Vischer  the  Elder,  and  revised 
and  changed  by  the  whole  family  after  Hermann’s 
return  from  Rome  with  his  Renaissance  notions.  It 
was  sold  in  1806  to  a merchant  for  old  metal;  later  it 
was  traced  to  the  south  of  France,  where  it  disappeared. 

Another  famous  bronze  of  Nuremberg  is  the  well- 
known  “ Goose  Man  ” fountain,  by  Labenwolf.  Every 
traveller  has  seen  the  quaint  half-foolish  little  man,  as 
he  stands  there  holding  his  two  geese  who  politely  turn 
away  their  heads  in  order  to  produce  the  streams  of 
water! 

With  the  best  bronzes,  and  with  steel  used  for  decora- 
tive purposes,  the  original  casting  has  frequently  been 
only  for  general  form,  the  whole  of  the  surface  finishing 
being  done  with  a shaping  tool,  by  hand,  giving  the 
appearance  of  a carving  in  bronze  or  steel.  In  Japanese 
bronzes  this  is  particularly  felt.  The  classical  bronzes 
were  evidently  perfect  mosaics  of  different  colours,  in 
metal.  Pliny  tells  of  a bronze  figure  of  a dying  woman, 
who  was  represented  as  having  changed  colour  at  the 
extremities,  the  fusion  of  the  different  shades  of  bronze 
being  disguised  by  anklets,  bracelets,  and  a necklace! 
A curious  and  very  disagreeable  work  of  art,  we  should 
say.  One  sometimes  sees  in  antique  fragments  ivory  or 
silver  eyeballs,  and  hair  and  eyelashes  made  separately 


144  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


in  thin  strips  and  coils  of  metal;  while  occasionally  the 
depression  of  the  edge  of  the  lips  is  sufficient  to  give 
rise  to  the  opinion  that  a thin  veneer  of  copper  was 
applied  to  give  colour. 

The  bronze  effigies  of  Henry  III.  and  Eleanor,  at 
Westminster,  were  the  work  of  a goldsmith,  Master 
William  Torel,  and  are  therefore  finer  in  quality  and  are 
in  some  respects  superior  to  the  average  casting  in  bronze. 
Torel  worked  at  the  palace,  and  the  statues  were  cast 
in  “ cire  perdue  ” process,  being  executed  in  the  church- 
yard itself.  They  are  considered  among  the  finest 
bronzes  of  the  period  extant.  Gilding  and  enamel 
were  often  used  in  bronze  effigies. 

Splendid  bronzes,  cast  each  in  a single  flow,  are  the 
recumbent  figures  of  two  bishops  at  Amiens;  they  are 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  Ruskin  says:  “ They  are  the 
only  two  bronze  tombs  of  her  men  of  the  great  ages  left 
in  France.”  An  old  document  speaks  of  the  “ moulds 
and  imagines  ” which  were  in  use  for  casting  effigy  por- 
traits, in  1394. 

Another  good  English  bronze  is  that  of  Richard 
Beauchamp  at  Warwick,  the  work  of  Thomas  Stevens, 
which  has  been  alluded  to.  In  Westminster  Abbey,  the 
effigy  of  Aymer  de  Valence,  dating  from  1296,  is  of 
copper,  but  it  is  not  cast;  it  is  of  beaten  metal,  and  is 
enamelled,  probably  at  Limoges. 

Bells  and  cannon  are  among  the  objects  of  actual 
utility  which  were  cast  in  bronze.  Statues  as  a rule 
came  later.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 


Other  Metals 


145 


in  England,  bronze  was  used  to  such  an  extent,  that 
one  authority  suggested  that  it  should  be  called  the 
“ Age  of  Bronze.”  Primitive  bells  were  made  of  cast  iron 
riveted  together : one  of  these  is  at  the  Cologne  museum, 
and  the  Irish  bells  were  largely  of  this  description.  A 
great  bell  was  presented  to  the  Cathedral  of  Chartres 
in  1028,  by  a donor  named  Jean,  which  affords  little 
clue  to  his  personality.  This  bell  weighed  over  two  tons. 

There  is  considerable  interest  attaching  to  the  subject 
of  the  making  of  bells  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Even  in 
domestic  life  bells  played  quite  a part;  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  ring  a bell  when  the  bath  was  ready  and  to 
announce  meals,  as  well  as  to  summon  the  servitors. 
Church  bells,  both  large  and  small,  were  in  use  in  Eng- 
land by  670,  according  to  Bede.  They  were  also  carried 
by  missionaries;  those  good  saints,  Patrick  and  Cuthbert, 
announced  their  coming  like  town  criers ! The  shrine  of 
St.  Patrick’s  bell  has  been  already  described.  Bells  used 
to  be  regarded  with  a superstitious  awe,  and  were  sup- 
posed to  have  the  ability  to  dispel  evil  spirits,  which  were 
exorcised  with  “ bell,  book,  and  candle.”  The  bell  of  St. 
Patrick,  inside  the  great  shrine,  is  composed  of  two  pieces 
of  sheet  iron,  one  of  which  forms  the  face,  and  being 
turned  over  the  top,  descends  about  half-way  down  the 
other  side,  where  it  meets  the  second  sheet.  Both  are 
bent  along  the  edges  so  as  to  form  the  sides  of  the  bell, 
and  they  are  both  secured  by  rivets.  A rude  handle  is 
similarly  attached  to  the  top. 

A quaint  account  is  given  by  the  Monk  of  St.  Gall 


146  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


about  a bell  ordered  by  Charlemagne.  Charlemagne 
having  admired  the  tone  of  a certain  bell,  the  founder, 
named  Tancho,  said  to  him:  “Lord  Emperor,  give 
orders  that  a great  weight  of  copper  be  brought  to  me 
that  I may  refine  it,  and  instead  of  tin  give  me  as  much 
silver  as  I need,  — a hundred  pounds  at  least,  — and 
I will  cast  such  a bell  for  you  that  this  will  seem  dumb 
in  comparison  to  it.”  Charlemagne  ordered  the  required 
amount  of  silver  to  be  sent  to  the  founder,  who  was, 
however,  a great  knave.  He  did  not  use  the  silver  at  all, 
but,  laying  it  aside  for  his  own  use,  he  employed  tin 
as  usual  in  the  bell,  knowing  that  it  would  make  a very 
fair  tone,  and  counting  on  the  Emperor’s  not  observing 
the  difference.  The  Emperor  was  glad  when  it  was  ready 
to  be  heard,  and  ordered  it  to  be  hung,  and  the  clapper 
attached.  “ That  was  soon  done,”  says  the  chronicler, 
“ and  then  the  warden  of  the  church,  the  attendants, 
and  even  the  boys  of  the  place,  tried,  one  after  the  other, 
to  make  the  bell  sound.  But  all  was  in  vain;  and  so 
at  last  the  knavish  maker  of  the  bell  came  up,  seized 
the  rope,  and  pulled  at  the  bell.  When,  lo!  and  behold! 
down  from  on  high  came  the  brazen  mass;  fell  on  the 
ver}^  head  of  the  cheating  brass  founder;  killed  him  on 
the  spot;  and  passed  straight  through  his  carcase  and 
crashed  to  the  ground.  . . . When  the  aforementioned 
weight  of  silver  was  found,  Charles  ordered  it  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  the  poorest  servants  of  the  palace.” 
There  is  record  of  bronze  bells  in  Valencia  as  early 
as  622,  and  an  ancient  mortar  was  found  near  Monzon, 


Other  Metals 


147 


in  the  ruins  of  a castle  which  had  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Arabs.  Round  the  edge  of  this  mortar  was  the 
inscription  : “ Complete  blessing,  and  ever  increasing 
happiness  and  prosperity  of  every  kind  and  an  elevated 
and  happy  social  position  for  its  owner.”  The  mortar 
was  richly  ornamented. 

At  Croyland,  Abbot  Egebric  “ caused  to  be  made  two 
great  bells  which  he  named  Bartholomew  and  Bethel- 
mus,  two  of  middle  size,  called  Turketul  and  Tatwyn, 
and  two  lesser,  Pega  and  Bega.”  Also  at  Croyland  were 
placed  “ two  little  bells  which  Fergus  the  brass  worker 
of  St.  Botolph’s  had  lately  given,”  in  the  church  tower, 
“ until  better  times,”  when  the  monks  expressed  a 
hope  that  they  should  improve  all  their  buildings  and 
appointments. 

Oil  that  dropped  from  the  framework  on  which  church 
bells  were  hung  was  regarded  in  Florence  as  a panacea 
for  various  ailments.  People  who  suffered  from  certain 
complaints  were  rubbed  with  this  oil,  and  fully  believed 
that  it  helped  them. 

The  curfew  bell  was  a famous  institution;  but  the 
name  was  not  originally  applied  to  the  bell  itself.  This 
leads  to  another  curious  bit  of  domestic  metal.  The 
popular  idea  of  a curfew  is  that  of  a bell;  a bell  was 
undoubtedly  rung  at  the  curfew  hour,  and  was  called 
by  its  name;  but  the  actual  curfew  (or  couvre  feu)  was 
an  article  made  of  copper,  shaped  not  unlike  a deep 
“ blowTer,”  which  was  used  in  order  to  extinguish  the 
fire  when  the  bell  rang.  There  are  a few  specimens  in 


148  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


England  of  these  curious  covers:  they  stood  about  ten 
to  fifteen  inches  high,  with  a handle  at  the  top,  and 
closed  in  on  three  sides,  open  at  the  back.  The  embers 
were  shovelled  close  to  the  back  of  the  hearth,  and  the 
curfew,  with  the  open  side  against  the  back  of  the 


chimney,  was  placed  over  them,  thus  excluding  all  air. 
Horace  Walpole  owned,  at  Strawberry  Hill,  a famous 
old  curfew,  in  copper,  elaborately  decorated  with  vines 
and  the  York  rose. 

The  Sanctuary  knocker  at  Durham  Cathedral  is  an 
important  example  of  bronze  work,  probably  of  the 


SANCTUARY  KNOCKER,  DURHAM  CATHEDRAL 


Other  Metals 


149 


same  age  as  the  Cathedral  door  on  which  it  is  fastened. 
They  both  date  from  about  the  eleventh  century.  Ever 
since  740,  in  the  Episcopate  of  Cynewulf,  criminals  were 
allowed  to  claim  Sanctuary  in  Durham.  When  this 
knocker  was  sounded,  the  door  was  opened,  by  two 
porters  who  had  their  accommodations  always  in  two 
little  chambers  over  the  door,  and  for  a certain  length 
of  time  the  criminal  was  under  the  protection  of  the 
Church.  t 

In  speaking  of  the  properties  of  lead,  the  old  English 
Bartholomew  says:  “ Of  uncleanness  of  impure  brim- 
stone, lead  hath  a manner  of  neshness,  and  smircheth 
his  hand  who  toucheth  it  ...  a man  may  wipe  off  the 
uncleanness,  but  always  it  is  lead,  although  it  seemeth 
silver.”  Weather  vanes,  made  often  of  lead,  were  some- 
times quite  elaborate.  One  of  the  most  important 
pieces  of  lead  work  in  art  is  the  figure  of  an  angel  on  the 
chewet  of  Ste.  Chapelle  in  Paris.  Originally  this  figure 
was  intended  to  be  so  controlled  by  clockwork  that  it 
would  turn  around  once  in  the  course  of  the  twenty-four 
hours,  so  that  his  attitude  of  benediction  should  be 
directed  to  all  four  quarters  of  the  city;  but  this  was  not 
practicable,  and  the  angel  is  stationary.  The  cock  on  the 
weather  vane  at  Winchester  was  described  as  early  as 
the  tenth  century,  in  the  Life  of  St.  Swithin,  by  the 
scribe  Walstan.  He  calls  it  “ a cock  of  elegant  form, 
and  all  resplendent  and  shining  with  gold  who  occupies 
the  summit  of  the  tower.  He  regards  the  world  from 
on  high,  he  commands  all  the  country.  Before  him 


150  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


extend  the  stars  of  the  North,  and  all  the  constellations 
of  the  zodiac.  Under  his  superb  feet  he  holds  the 
sceptre  of  the  law,  and  he  sees  under  him  all  the  people 
of  Winchester.  The  other  cocks  are  humble  subjects 
of  this  one,  whom  they  see  thus  raised  in  mid-air  above 
them:  he  scorns  the  winds,  that  bring  the  rains,  and, 
turning,  he  .presents  to  them  his  back.  The  terrible 
efforts  of  the  tempest  do  not  annoy  him,  he  receives  with 
courage  either  snow  or  lightning,  alone  he  watches  the 
sun  as  it  sets  and  dips  into  the  ocean : and  it  is  he  who 
gives  it  its  first  salute  on  its  rising  again.  The  traveller 
who  sees  him  afar  off,  fixes  on  him  his  gaze;  forgetting 
the  road  he  has  still  to  follow,  he  forgets  his  fatigues: 
he  advances  with  renewed  ardour.  While  he  is  in  reality 
a long  way  from  the  end,  his  eyes  deceive  him,  and  he 
thinks  that  he  has  arrived.”  Quite  a practical  tribute 
to  a weather  cock! 

The  fact  that  leaden  roofs  were  placed  on  all  churches 
and  monastic  buildings  in  the  Middle  Ages,  accounts 
in  part  for  their  utter  destruction  in  case  of  fire;  for  it 
is  easy  to  see  how  impossible  it  would  be  to  enter  a build- 
ing in  order  to  save  anything,  if,  to  the  terror  of  flames, 
were  added  the  horror  of  a leaden  shower  of  molten 
metal  proceeding  from  every  part  of  the  roof  at  once! 
If  a church  once  caught  fire,  that  was  its  end,  as  a rule. 

The  invention  of  clocks,  on  the  principle  of  cog-wheels 
and  weights,  is  attributed  to  a monk,  named  Gerbert, 
who  died  in  1013.  He  had  been  instructor  to  King 
Robert,  and  was  made  Bishop  of  Rheims,  later  becoming 


Other  Metals 


151 


Pope  Sylvester  II.  Clocks  at  first  were  large  affairs  in 
public  places.  Portable  clocks  were  said  to  have  been 
first  made  by  Carovage,  in  1480. 

An  interesting  specimen  of  mediaeval  clock  work  is 


ANGLO  SAXON  CRUCIFIX  OF  LEAD 


the  old  Dijon  time  keeper,  which  still  performs  its  office, 
and  which  is  a privilege  to  watch  at  high  noon.  Twelve 
times  the  bell  is  struck:  first  by  a man,  who  turns 
decorously  with  his  hammer,  and  then  by  a woman, 
who  does  the  same.  This  staunch  couple  have  worked 


152  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


for  their  living  for  many  centuries.  Froissart  alludes 
to  this  clock,  saying:  “ The  Duke  of  Burgundy  caused 
to  be  carried  away  from  the  market  place  at  Courtray 
a clock  that  struck  the  hours,  one  of  the  finest  which 
could  be  found  on  either  side  of  the  sea:  and  he  con- 
veyed it  by  pieces  in  carts,  and  the  bell  also,  which  clock 
was  brought  and  carted  into  the  town  of  Dijon,  in  Bur- 
gundy, where  it  was  deposited  and  put  up,  and  there 
strikes  the  twenty-four  hours  between  day  and  night.” 
This  was  in  1382,  and  there  is  no  knowing  how  long  the 
clock  may  have  performed  its  functions  in  Courtray 
prior  to  its  removal  to  Dijon. 

The  great  clock  at  Nuremberg  shows  a procession  of 
the  Seven  Electors,  who  come  out  of  one  door,  pass  in 
front  of  the  throne,  each  turning  and  doing  obeisance, 
and  pass  on  through  another  door.  It  is  quite  imposing, 
at  noon,  to  watch  this  procession  repeated  twelve  times. 
The  clock  is  called  the  Mannleinlauffen. 

In  the  Statutes  of  Francis  I.,  there  is  a clause  stating 
that  clockmakers  as  well  as  goldsmiths  were  authorized  to 
employ  in  their  work  gold,  silver,  and  all  other  materials. 

In  Wells  Cathedral  is  a curious  clock,  on  which  is  a 
figure  of  a monarch,  like  Charles  I.,  seated  above  the 
bell,  which  he  kicks  with  his  heels  when  the  hour  comes 
round.  He  is  popularly  known  as  “ Jack  Blandiver.” 
This  clock  came  originally  from  Glastonbury.  On  the 
hour  a little  tournament  takes  place,  a race  of  little 
mounted  knights  rushing  out  in  circles  and  charging 
each  other  vigorously. 


Other  Metals 


153 


Pugin  regrets  the  meaningless  designs  used  by  early 
Victorian  clock  makers.  He  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  “ it  is  not  unusual  to  cast  a Roman  warrior 
in  a flying  chariot,  round  one  of  the  wheels  of  which  on 
close  inspection  the  hours  may  be  descried;  or  the  whole 
front  of  a cathedral  church  reduced  to  a few  inches  in 
height,  with  the  clock  face  occupying  the  position  of 
a magnificent  rose  window!”  This  is  not  overdrawn; 
taste  has  suffered  many  vicissitudes  in  the  course  of  time, 
but  we  hope  that  the  future  will  hold  more  beauty  for 
us  in  the  familiar  articles  of  the  household  than  have 
prevailed  at  some  periods  in  the  past. 


CHAPTER  V 


TAPESTRY 

A study  of  textiles  is  often  subdivided  into  tapestry, 
carpet-weaving,  mechanical  weaving  of  fabrics  of  a 
lighter  weight,  and  embroidery.  These  headings  are 
useful  to  observe  in  our  researches  in  the  mediaeval 
processes  connected  with  the  loom  and  the  needle. 

Tapestry,  as  we  popularly  think  of  it,  in  great  rectan- 
gular wall-hangings  with  rather  florid  figures  from  Scrip- 
tural scenes,  commonly  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century 
or  later,  so  that  it  is  out  of  our  scope  to  study  its  manu- 
facture on  an  extensive  scale.  But  there  are  earlier 
tapestries,  much  more  restrained  in  design,  and  more 
interesting  and  frequently  more  beautiful.  Of  these 
earlier  works  there  is  less  profusion,  for  the  examples 
are  rare  and  precious,  and  seldom  come  into  the  market 
nowadays.  The  later  looms  were  of  course  more  prolific 
as  the  technical  facilities  increased.  But  a study  of  the 
craft  as  it  began  gives  one  all  that  is  necessary  for  a 
proper  appreciation  of  the  art  of  tapestry  weaving. 

The  earliest  European  work  with  which  we  have  to 
concern  ourselves  is  the  Bayeux  tapestry.  Although  this 
is  really  needlework,  it  is  usually  treated  as  tapestry, 

154 


Tapestry 


155 


and  there  seems  to  be  no  special  reason  for  departing 
from  the  custom.  Some  authorities  state  that  the 
Bayeux  tapestry  was  made  by  the  Empress  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  L,  while  others  consider  it  the 
achievement  of  Queen  Matilda,  the  wife  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  She  is  recorded  to  have  sat  quietly  awaiting 
her  lord’s  coming,  while  she  embroidered  this  quaint 
souvenir  of  his  prowess  in  conquest.  A veritable  mediae- 
val Penelope,  it  is  claimed  that  she  directed  her  ladies  in 
this  work,  which  is  thoroughly  Saxon  in  feeling  and  cos- 
tuming. It  is  undoubtedly  the  most  interesting  re- 
maining piece  of  needlework  of  the  eleventh  century, 
and  it  would  be  delightful  if  one  could  believe  the  legend 
of  its  construction.  Its  attribution  to  Queen  Matilda 
is  very  generally  doubted  by  those  who  have  devoted 
much  thought  to  the  subject.  Mr.  Frank  Rede  Fowke 
gives  it  as  his  opinion,  based  on  a number  of  arguments 
too  long  to  quote  in  this  place,  that  the  tapestry  was  not 
made  by  Queen  Matilda,  but  was  ordered  by  Bishop  Odo 
as  an  ornament  for  the  nave  of  Bayeux  Cathedral,  and 
was  executed  by  Norman  craftsmen  in  that  city.  Dr. 
Rock  also  favours  the  theory  that  it  was  worked  by  order 
of  Bishop  Odo.  Odo  was  a brother  of  William  the  Con- 
queror and  might  easily  have  been  interested  in  pre- 
serving so  important  a record  of  the  Battle  of  Hastings. 
Dr.  Rock  states  that  the  tradition  that  Queen  Matilda 
executed  the  tapestry  did  not  arise  at  all  until  1730. 

The  work  is  on  linen,  executed  in  worsteds.  Fowke 
gives  the  length  as  two  hundred  and  thirty  feet,  while 


156  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


it  is  only  nineteen  inches  wide,  — a long  narrow  strip  of 
embroidery,  in  many  colours  on  a cream  white  ground. 
In  all,  there  are  six  hundred  and  twenty-three  figures, 
besides  two  hundred  horses  and  dogs,  five  hundred  and 
five  animals,  thirty-seven  buildings,  forty-one  ships, 
forty-nine  trees,  making  in  all  the  astonishing  number 
of  one  thousand  five  hundred  and  twelve  objects! 

The  colours  are  in  varying  shades  of  blue,  green,  red 
and  yellow  worsted.  The  colours  are  used  as  a child 
employs  crayons;  just  as  they  come  to  hand.  When  a 
needleful  of  one  thread  was  used  up,  the  next  was  taken, 
apparently  quite  irrespective  of  the  colour  or  shade. 
Thus,  a green  horse  will  be  seen  standing  on  red  legs, 
and  a red  horse  will  sport  a blue  stocking!  Mr.  J.  L. 
Hayes  believes  that  these  varicoloured  animals  are 
planned  purposely:  that  two  legs  of  a green  horse  are 
rendered  in  red  on  the  further  side,  to  indicate  perspec- 
tive, the  same  principle  accounting  for  two  blue  legs  on 
a yellow  horse! 

The  buildings  are  drawn  in  a very  primitive  way,  with- 
out consideration  for  size  or  proportion.  The  solid  part 
of  the  embroidery  is  couched  on,  while  much  of  the 
work  is  only  rendered  in  outline.  But  the  spirited  little 
figures  are  full  of  action,  and  suggest  those  in  the  cele- 
brated Utrecht  Psalter.  Sometimes  one  figure  will  be 
as  high  as  the  whole  width  of  the  material,  while  again, 
the  people  will  be  tiny.  In  the  scene  representing  the 
burial  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
the  roof  of  the  church  is  several  inches  louver  than  the 


DETAIL,  BAYEUX  TAPESTRY 


Tapestry 


157 


bier  which  is  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  men  nearly  as 
tall  as  the  tower! 

The  naive  treatment  of  details  is  delicious.  Harold, 
when  about  to  embark,  steps  with  bare  legs  into  the 
tide : the  water  is  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a hill  of  waves, 
in  order  to  indicate  that  it  gets  deeper  later  on.  It 
might  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  Red  Sea  humping 
up  for  the  benefit  of  the  Israelites!  The  curious  little 
stunted  figure  with  a bald  head,  in  the  group  of  the 
conference  of  messengers,  would  appear  to  be  an  abortive 
attempt  to  portray  a person  at  some  distance  — he 
is  drawn  much  smaller  than  the  others  to  suggest  that 
he  is  quite  out  of  hearing ! This  seems  to  have  been  the 
only  attempt  at  rendering  the  sense  of  perspective. 
Then  comes  a mysterious  little  lady  in  a kind  of  shrine, 
to  whom  a clerk  is  making  curious  advances;  to  the 
casual  observer  it  would  appear  that  the  gentleman 
is  patting  her  on  the  cheek,  but  we  are  informed  by 
Thierry  that  this  represents  an  embroideress,  and  that 
the  clerk  is  in  the  act  of  ordering  the  Bayeux  Tapestry 
itself!  Conjecture  is  swamped  concerning  the  real  in- 
tention of  this  group,  and  no  certain  diagnosis  has  ever 
been  pronounced!  The  Countess  of  Wilton  sees  in  this 
group  “ a female  in  a sort  of  porch,  with  a clergyman  in 
the  act  of  pronouncing  a benediction  upon  her!  ” Every 
one  to  his  taste. 

A little  farther  on  there  is  another  unexplained  figure : 
that  of  a man  with  his  feet  crossed,  swinging  joyously 
on  a rope  from  the  top  of  a tower. 


158  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Soon  after  the  Crowning  of  Harold,  may  be  seen  a 
crowd  of  people  gazing  at  an  astronomic  phenomenon 
which  has  been  described  by  an  old  chronicler  as  a 
“ hairy  star.’ 7 It  is  recorded  as  “a  blazing  starre  ” 
such  as  “ never  appears  but  as  a prognostic  of  after- 
claps,”  and  again,  as  “ dreadful  to  be  seen,  with  bloudie 
haires,  and  all  over  rough  and  shagged  at  the  top.” 
Another  author  complacently  explains  that  comets 
“ were  made  to  the  end  that  the  ethereal  regions  might 
not  be  more  void  of  monsters  than  the  ocean  is  of  whales 
and  other  great  thieving  fish!  ” A very  literal  interpreta- 
tion of  this  “ hairy  star  ” has  been  here  embroidered, 
carefully  fitted  out  with  cog-wheels  and  all  the  para- 
phernalia of  a conventional  mediaeval  comet. 

In  the  scenes  dealing  with  the  preparation  of  the 
army  and  the  arrangement  of  their  food,  there  occurs 
the  lassooing  of  an  ox;  the  amount  of  action  concen- 
trated in  this  group  is  really  wonderful.  The  ox,  spring- 
ing clear  of  the  ground,  with  all  his  legs  gathered  up 
under  him,  turns  his  horned  head,  which  is  set  on  an 
unduly  long  neck,  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  his  pur- 
suers. No  better  origin  for  the  ancient  tradition  of  the 
cow  who  jumped  over  the  moon  could  be  adduced.  And 
what  shall  we  say  of  the  acrobatic  antics  of  Leofwine 
and  Gyrth  when  meeting  their  deaths  in  battle?  These 
warriors  are  turning  elaborate  handsprings  in  their  last 
moments,  while  horses  are  represented  as  performing 
such  somersaults  that  they  are  practically  inverted. 
In  the  border  of  this  part  of  the  tapestry,  soldiers  are 


Tapestry 


159 


seen  stripping  off  the  coats  of  mail  from  the  dead  war- 
riors on  the  battle-field;  this  they  do  by  turning  the 
tunic  inside  out  and  pulling  it  off  at  the  head,  and  the 
resulting  attitudes  of  the  victims  are  quaint  and  realistic 
in  the  extreme!  The  border  has  been  appropriately 
described  as  “ a layer  of  dead  men.”  In  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  one  of  the  regular  petitions  in  the 
Litany  was  “ From  the  fury  of  the  Normans  Good  Lord 
Deliver  us.” 

The  Bayeux  Tapestry  was  designated,  in  1746,  as 
“ the  noblest  monument  in  the  world  relating  to  our  old 
English  History.”  It  has  passed  through  most  trying 
vicissitudes,  having  been  used  in  war  time  as  a canvas 
covering  to  a transport  wagon,  among  other  experiences. 
For  centuries  this  precious  treasure  was  neglected  and 
not  understood.  In  his  “Tour”  M.  Ducarel  states: 
“ The  priests  ...  to  whom  we  addressed  ourselves  for 
a sight  of  this  remarkable  piece  of  antiquity,  knew 
nothing  of  it;  the  circumstance  only  of  its  being  an- 
nually hung  up  in  their  church  led  them  to  understand 
what  we  wanted,  no  person  then  knowing  that  the 
object  of  our  inquiries  any  ways  related  to  the  Con- 
queror.” This  was  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Anglo-Saxon  women  spent  much  of  their  time  in 
embroidering.  Edith,  Queen  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
was  quite  noted  for  her  needlework,  which  was  sometimes 
used  to  decorate  the  state  robes  of  the  king. 

Formerly  there  existed  at  Ely  Cathedral  a work  very 
like  the  Bayeux  Tapestry,  recording  the  deeds  of  the 


160  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


heroic  Brihtnoth,  the  East  Saxon,  who  was  slain  in  991, 
fighting  the  Danish  forces.  His  wife  rendered  his  history 
in  needlework,  and  presented  it  to  Ely.  Unhappily  there 
are  no  remains  of  this  interesting  monument  now  exist- 
ing. The  nearest  thing  to  the  Bayeux  Tapestry  in  general 
texture  and  style  is  perhaps  a twelfth  century  work 
in  the  Cathedral  at  Gerona,  a little  over  four  yards  square, 
which  is  worked  in  crewels  on  linen,  and  is  ornamented 
with  scenes  of  an  Oriental  and  primitive  character, 
taken  mainly  from  the  story  of  Genesis.  These  tapes- 
tries come  under  the  head  of  needlework.  The  tapestries 
made  on  looms  proceed  upon  a different  principle,  and 
are  woven  instead  of  embroidered. 

Two  kinds  of  looms  were  used  under  varying  conditions 
in  different  places;  high  warp  looms,  or  Haute  Lisse,  and 
low  warp  looms,  known  as  Basse  Lisse. 

The  general  method  of  making  tapestries  on  a high 
warp  loom  has  been  much  the  same  for  many  centuries. 
The  warp  is  stretched  vertically  in  two  sets,  every  other 
thread  being  first  forward  and  then  back  in  the  setting. 
M.  Lacordaire,  late  Director  of  the  Gobelins,  writes  as 
follows:  “The  workman  takes  a spindle  filled  with 
worsted  or  silk  ...  he  stops  off  the  weft  thread  and 
fastens  it  to  the  warp,  to  the  left  of  the  space  to  be 
occupied  by  the  colour  he  has  in  hand;  then,  by  passing 
his  left  hand  between  the  back  and  the  front  threads, 
he  separates  those  that  are  to  be  covered  with  colours; 
with  his  right  hand,  having  passed  it  through  the  same 
threads,  he  reaches  to  the  left  side,  for  the  spindle  which 


Tapestry 


161 


he  brings  back  to  the  right;  his  left  hand,  then,  seizing 
hold  of  the  warp,  brings  the  back  threads  to  the  front, 
while  the  right  hand  thrusts  the  spindle  back  to  the 
point  whence  it  started.”  When  a new  colour  is  to  be 
introduced,  the  artist  takes  a new  shuttle.  He  fastens 
his  thread  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  tapestry  (the  side  on 
which  he  works)  and  repeats  the  process  just  described 
on  the  strings  stretched  up  and  down  before  him,  like 
harp  strings;  the  work  is  commenced  at  the  lower  part, 
and  worked  upwards,  so  that,  when  this  strictly  “ hand 
weaving  ” is  accomplished,  it  may  be  crowded  down 
into  place  by  means  of  a kind  of  ivory  comb,  so  adjusted 
that  the  teeth  fit  between  the  warp  threads.  In  tapestry 
weaving,  the  warp  could  be  of  any  inferior  but  strong 
thread,  for,  by  the  nature  of  the  work,  only  the  woof 
was  visible,  the  warp  being  quite  hidden  and  incorporated 
into  the  texture  under  the  close  lying  stitches  which 
met  and  dove-tailed  over  it. 

The  worker  on  a low  loom  does  not  see  the  right  side  of 
the  work  at  all,  unless  he  lifts  the  loom,  which  is  a diffi- 
cult undertaking.  On  a high  loom,  it  is  only  necessary 
for  the  worker  to  go  around  to  the  front  in  order  to  see 
exactly  what  he  is  doing.  The  design  is  put  below 
the  work,  however,  in  a low  loom,  and  the  work  is  thus 
practically  traced  as  the  tapestry  proceeds. 

On  account  of  the  limitations  of  the  human  arm  in 
reaching,  the  low  warp  tapestry  requires  more  seams 
than  does  that  made  on  the  “ haute  lisse  ” loom,  the 
pieces  being  individually  smaller.  One  whole  division 


162  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


of  the  workmen  in  tapestry  establishments  used  to  be 
known  as  the  “ fine  drawers/7  whose  whole  duty  was 
to  join  the  different  pieces  together,  and  also  to  repair 
worn  tapestries,  inserting  new  stitches  for  restorations. 
Tapestry  repairing  was  a necessary  craft;  at  Rheims 
some  tapestries  were  restored  by  Jacquemire  de  Bergeres; 
these  hangings  had  been  “ much  damaged  by  dogs, 
rats,  mice,  and  other  beasts.7 7 It  is  not  stated  where 
they  had  been  hung! 

High  warp  looms  have  been  knoym  in  Europe  certainly 
since  the  ninth  century.  There  is  an  order  extant,  from 
the  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  who  died  in  840,  for  some  “ car- 
pets for  his  church.77  In  890  the  monks  of  Saumur  were 
manufacturing  tapestries.  Beautiful  textiles  had  been 
used  to  ornament  the  Church  of  St.  Denis  as  early  as  630, 
but  there  is  no  proof  that  these  were  actually  tapestries. 
There  is  a legend  that  in  732  a tapestry  establishment 
existed  in  the  district  between  Tours  and  Poitiers.  At 
Beauvais,  too,  the  weavers  of  arras  were  settled  at  the 
time  of  the  Norman  ravages. 

King  Dagobert  was  a mediaeval  patron  of  arts  in 
France.  He  had  the  walls  of  St.  Denis  (which  he  built) 
hung  with  rich  tapestries  set  with  pearls  and  wrought 
with  gold.  At  the  monastery  of  St.  Florent,  at  Saumur 
in  985,  the  monks  wove  tapestries,  using  floral  and 
animal  forms  in  their  designs.  At  Poitiers  there  was 
quite  a flourishing  factory  as  early  as  1025.  Tapestry 
was  probably  first  made  in  France,  to  any  considerable 
extent,  then,  in  the  ninth  century.  The  historian 


Tapestry 


163 


of  the  monastery  of  Saumur  tells  us  an  interesting  inci- 
dent in  connection  with  the  works  there.  The  Abbot 
of  St.  Florent  had  placed  a magnificent  order  for  “ cur- 
tains, canopies,  hangings,  bench  covers,  and  other 
ornaments,  . . . and  he  caused  to  be  made  two  pieces 
of  tapestry  of  large  size  and  admirable  quality,  represent- 
ing elephants.”  While  these  were  about  to  be  com- 
menced, the  aforesaid  abbot  was  called  away  on  a 
journey.  The  ecclesiastic  who  remained  issued  a 
command  that  the  tapestries  should  be  made  with  a 
woof  different  from  that  which  they  habitually  used. 
“ Well,”  said  they,  “ in  the  absence  of  the  good  abbot 
we  will  not  discontinue  our  employment;  but  as  you 
thwart  us,  we  shall  make  quite  a different  kind  of  fabric.” 
So  they  deliberately  set  to  work  to  make  square  carpets 
with  silver  lions  on  a red  ground,  with  a red  and  white 
border  of  various  animals!  Abbot  William  was  fortu- 
nately pleased  with  the  result,  and  used  lions  inter- 
changeably with  elephants  thereafter  in  his  decorations. 

At  the  ninth  century  tapestry  manufactory  in  Poi- 
tiers, an  amusing  correspondence  took  place  between 
the  Count  of  Poitou  and  an  Italian  bishop,  in  1025. 
Poitou  was  at  that  time  noted  for  its  fine  breed  of  mules. 
The  Italian  bishop  wrote  to  ask  the  count  to  send  him 
one  mule  and  one  tapestry,  — as  he  expressed  it,  “ both 
equally  marvellous.”  The  count  replied  with  spirit: 
“ I cannot  send  you  what  you  ask,  because  for  a mule 
to  merit  the  epithet  marvellous , he  would  have  to  have 
horns,  or  three  tails,  or  five  legs,  and  this  I should  not 


164  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


be  able  to  find.  I shall  have  to  content  myself  with 
sending  you  the  best  that  I can  procure!  ” 

In  992  the  Abbey  of  Croyland,  in  England,  owned 
“ two  large  foot  cloths  woven  with  lions,  to  be  laid 
before  the  high  altar  on  great  festivals,  and  two  shorter 
ones  trailed  all  over  with  flowers,  for  the  feast  days  of 
the  Apostles.” 

Under  Church  auspices  in  the  twelfth  century,  the 
tapestry  industry  rose  to  its  most  splendid  perfection. 
When  the  secular  looms  were  started,  the  original  beauty 
of  the  work  was  retained  for  a considerable  time;  in 
the  tenth  century  German  craftsmen  worked  as  indi- 
viduals, independently  of  Guilds  or  organizations.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  the  work  was  in  a flourishing 
condition  in  France,  where  both  looms  were  in  use. 
The  upright  loom  is  still  used  at  the  Gobelin  factory. 

As  an  adjunct  to  the  stained  glass  windows  in  churches, 
there  never  was  a texture  more  harmonious  than  good 
mediaeval  tapestry.  In  1260  the  best  tapestries  in 
France  were  made  by  the  Church  exclusively;  in  1461 
King  Rene  of  Anjou  bequeathed  a magnificent  tapestry 
in  twenty-seven  subjects  representing  the  Apocalypse, 
to  “ the  church  of  Monsieur  St.  Maurice,”  at  Angers. 

Although  tapestry  was  made  in  larger  quantities 
during  the  Renaissance,  the  mediaeval  designs  are 
better  adapted  to  the  material. 

The  royal  chambers  of  the  Kings  of  England  were 
hung  with  tapestry,  and  it  was  the  designated  duty  of 
the  Chamberlain  to  see  to  such  adornment.  In  1294 


Tapestry 


165 


there  is  mention  of  a special  artist  in  tapestry,  who  lived 
near  Winchester;  his  name  was  Sewald,  and  he  was 
further  known  as  “ le  tapenyr,”  which,  according  to 
M.  G.  Thomson,  signifies  tapestrier. 

One  is  led  to  believe  that  tapestries  were  used  as 
church  adornments  before  they  were  introduced  into 
dwellings;  for  it  was  said,  when  Queen  Eleanor  of 
Castile  had  her  bedroom  hung  with  tapestries,  that 
“ it  was  like  a church.”  At  Westminster,  a writer 
of  1631  alludes  to  the  “ cloths  of  Arras  which  adorn  the 
choir.” 

Sets  of  tapestries  to  hang  entire  apartments  were 
known  as  “ Hallings.”  Among  the  tapestries  which 
belonged  to  Charles  V.  was  one  “ worked  with  towers, 
fallow  bucks  and  does,  to  put  over  the  King’s  boat.” 
Among  early  recorded  tapestries  are  those  mentioned  in 
the  inventory  of  Philip  the  Bold,  in  1404,  while  that  of 
Philip  the  Good  tells  of  his  specimens,  in  1420.  Noth- 
ing can  well  be  imagined  more  charming  than  the  de- 
scription of  a tapestried  chamber  in  1418;  the  room 
being  finished  in  white  was  decorated  with  paroquets 
and  damsels  playing  harps.  This  work  was  accom- 
plished for  the  Duchess  of  Bavaria  by  the  tapestry  maker, 
Jean  of  Florence. 

Flanders  tapestry  was  famous  in  the  twelfth  and 
fourteenth  centuries.  Arras  particularly  was  the  town 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  wTork.  This  famous 
manufactory  was  founded  prior  to  1350,  as  there  is 
mention  of  work  of  that  period.  Before  the  town  be- 


166  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


came  known  as  Arras,  while  it  still  retained  its  original 
name,  Nomenticum,  the  weavers  were  famous  who 
worked  there.  In  282  A.  D.  the  woven  cloaks  of  Nomen- 
ticum  were  spoken  of  by  Flavius  Vopiscus. 

The  earliest  record  of  genuine  Arras  tapestry  occurs 
in  an  order  from  the  Countess  of  Artois  in  1313,  when 
she  directs  her  receiver  “ de  faire  faire  six  tapis  a Arras.” 
Among  the  craftsmen  at  Arras  in  1389  was  a Saracen, 
named  Jehan  de  Croisetes,  and  in  1378  there  was  a 
worker  by  the  name  of  Huwart  Wallois.  Several  of  its 
workmen  emigrated*  to  Lille,  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
among  them  one  Simon  Lamoury  and  another,  Jehan  de 
Rausart.  In  1419  the  Council  Chamber  of  Ypres  was 
ornamented  with  splendid  tapestries  by  Frangois  de 
Wechter,  who  designed  them,  and  had  them  executed 
by  Arras  workmen.  The  Van  Ej^cks  and  Memlinc  also 
designed  tapestries,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  art 
would  have  continued  to  show  a more  consistent  regard 
for  the  demands  of  the  material  if  Raphael  had  never 
executed  his  brilliant  cartoons.  The  effort  to  be  Ra- 
phaelesque  ruined  the  effect  of  many  a noble  piece  of 
technique,  after  that. 

In  1302  a body  of  ten  craftsmen  formed  a Corporation 
in  Paris.  The  names  of  several  workmen  at  Lille  have 
been  handed  down  to  us.  In  1318  Jehan  Orghet  is  re- 
corded, and  in  1368,  Willaume,  a high-warp  worker. 
Penalties  for  false  work  were  extreme.  One  of  the  best 
known  workers  in  France  was  Bataille,  who  was  closely 
followed  by  one  Dourdain. 


FLEMISH  TA.PESTRY 


THE  PRODIGAL  SON 


Tapestry 


167 


A famous  Arras  tapestry  was  made  in  1386  by  a 
weaver  of  the  name  of  Michel  Bernard.  It  measured 
over  two  hundred  and  eighty-five  square  yards,  and 
represented  the  battle  .of  Roosebecke.  At  this  time  a 
tapestry  worker  lived,  named  Jehanne  Aghehe,  one  of 
the  first  attested  women’s  names  in  connection  with  this 
art.  In  the  Treasury  of  the  church  of  Douai  there 
is  mention  of  three  cushions  made  of  high  loom 
tapestry  presented  in  1386  by  “ la  demoiselle  Englise.” 
It  is  not  known  who  this  young  lady  may  have  been. 
France  and  Flanders  made  the  most  desirable  tapestries 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  Italy  the  art  had  little 
vogue  until  the  fifteenth. 

Very  little  tapestry  was  made  in  Spain  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  — the  earliest  well  known  maker  was  named 
Gutierrez,  in  the  time  of  Philip  IV.  The  picture  by 
Velasquez,  known  as  “ The  Weavers,”  represents  the 
interior  of  his  manufactory. 

A table  cloth  in  mediaeval  times  was  called  a “ car- 
pett:”  these  were  often  very  ornate,  and  it  is  useful 
to  know  that  their  use  was  not  for  floor  covering,  for 
the  inventories  often  mention  “ carpetts  ” worked  with 
pearls  and  silver  tissue,  which  would  have  been  singu- 
larfy  inappropriate.  The  Arabs  introduced  the  art  of 
carpet  weaving  into  Spain.  An  Oriental,  Edrisi,  writing 
in  the  twelfth  century,  says  that  such  carpets  were  made  at 
that  time  in  Alicante,  as  could  not  be  produced  elsewhere, 
owing  to  certain  qualities  in  both  air  and  water  which 
greatly  benefited  the  wool  used  in  their  manufacture. 


168  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


In  the  Travels  of  Jean  Lagrange,  the  author  says  that 
all  carpets  of  Smyrna  and  Caramania  are  woven  by 
women.  As  soon  as  a girl  can  hold  a shuttle,  they  stretch 
cords  between  two  trees,  to  make  a warp,  and  then  they 
give  her  all  colours  of  wools,  and  leave  her  to  her  own 
devices.  They  tell  her,  “ It  is  for  you  to  make  your 
own  dowry.”  Then,  according  to  the  inborn  art  in- 
stinct of  the  child,  she  begins  her  carpet.  Naturally, 
traditions  and  association  with  others  engaged  in  the 
same  pursuit  assist  in  the  scheme  and  arrangement; 
usually  the  carpet  is  not  finished  until  she  is  old  enough 
to  marry.  “ Then,”  continues  Lagrange,  “ two  masters, 
two  purchasers,  present  themselves;  the  one  carries  off 
a carpet,  and  the  other  a wife.” 

Edward  II.  of  England  owned  a tapestry  probably 
of  English  make,  described  as  “ a green  hanging  of  wool 
wove  with  figures  of  Kings  and  Earls  upon  it.”  There 
was  a roistering  Britisher  called  John  le  Tappistere, 
who  was  complained  of  by  certain  people  near  Oxford, 
as  having  seized  Master  John  of  Shoreditch,  and  assaulted 
and  imprisoned  him,  confiscating  his  goods  and  charg- 
ing him  fifty  pounds  for  ransom.  It  is  not  stated  what 
the  gentleman  from  Shoreditch  had  done  thus  to  bring 
down  upon  him  the  wrath  of  John  the  weaver! 

English  weavers  had  rather  the  reputation  of  being 
fighters:  in  1340  one  George  le  Tapicier  murdered  John 
le  Dextre  of  Leicester;  while  Giles  de  la  Hyde  also  slew 
Thomas  Tapicier  in  1385.  Possibly  these  rows  occurred 
on  account  of  a practical  infringement  upon  the  man- 


Tapestry 


169 


ufacturing  rights  of  others  as  set  down  in  the  rules  of 
the  Company.  There  was  a woman  in  Finch  Lane  who 
produced  tapestry,  with  a cotton  back,  “ after  the 
manner  of  the  works  of  Arras this  was  considered 
a dishonest  business,  and  the  work  was  ordered  to  be 
burnt. 

Roger  van  der  Weyden  designed  a set  of  tapestries 
representing  the  History  of  Herkinbald,  the  stern  uncle 
who,  with  his  own  hand,  beheaded  his  nephew  for 
wronging  a young  woman.  Upon  his  death-bed,  Her- 
kinbald refused  to  confess  this  act  as  a sin,  claiming 
the  murder  to  have  been  justifiable  and  a positive  virtue. 
Apparently  the  Higher  Powers  were  on  his  side,  too, 
for,  when  the  priest  refused  the  Eucharist  to  the  imper- 
tinent Herkinbald,  it  is  related  that  the  Host  descended 
by  a miracle  and  entered  the  lips  of  the  dying  man. 
A dramatic  story,  of  which  van  der  Weyden  made  the 
most,  in  designing  his  wonderfully  decorative  tapes- 
tries. The  originals  were  lost,  but  similar  copies  remain. 

As  early  as  1441  tapestries  were  executed  in  Oude- 
nardes;  usually  these  were  composed  of  green  foliage, 
and  known  as  “ verdures.”  In  time  the  names  “ ver- 
dure ” and  “ Oudenarde  ” became  interchangeably 
associated  with  this  class  of  tapestry.  They  represented 
woodland  and  hunting  scenes,  and  were  also  called 
“ Tapestry  verde,”  and  are  alluded  to  by  Chaucer. 

Curious  symbolic  subjects  were  often  used:  for 

instance,  for  a set  of  hangings  for  a banquet  hall,  what 
could  be  more  whimsically  appropriate  than  the  repre- 


170  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


sentation  of  “ Dinner,”  giving  a feast  to  “ Good  Com- 
pany,” while  “ Banquet  ” and  “ Maladies  ” attack  the 
guests ! This  scene  is  followed  by  the  arrest  of  “ Souper  ” 
and  “ Banquet  ” by  “ Experience,”  who  condemns  them 
both  to  die  for  their  cruel  treatment  of  the  Feasters! 

There  is  an  old  poem  written  by  a monk  of  Chester, 
named  Bradshaw,  in  which  a large  hall  decorated  with 
tapestries  is  described  as  follows: 

“ All  herbs  and  flowers,  fair  and  sweet, 

Were  strawed  in  halls,  and  layd  under  their  feet; 

Cloths  of  gold,  and  arras  were  hanged  on  the  wall, 
Depainted  with  pictures  and  stories  manifold 
Well  wrought  and  craftely.” 

A set  of  tapestries  was  made  by  some  of  the  monks 
of  Troyes,  who  worked  upon  the  high  loom,  displaying 
scenes  from  the  Life  of  the  Magdalen.  This  task  was 
evidently  not  devoid  of  the  lighter  elements,  for  in  the 
bill,  the  good  brothers  made  charge  for  such  wine  as  they 
drank  “ when  they  consulted  together  in  regard  to  the 
life  of  the  Saint  in  question!  ” 

Among  the  most  interesting  tapestries  are  those 
representing  scenes  from  the  Wars  of  Troy,  in  South 
Kensington.  They  are  crowded  with  detail,  and  in  this 
respect  exhibit  most  satisfactorily  the  beauties  of  the 
craft,  which  is  enhanced  by  small  intricacies,  and  ren- 
dered less  impressive  when  treated  in  broad  masses  of 
unrelieved  woven  colour.  Another  magnificent  set,  bear- 
ing similar  characteristics,  is  the  History  of  Clovis  at 
Rheims. 


Tapestry 


171 


There  is  a fascinating  set  of  English  tapestries  repre- 
senting the  Seasons,  at  Hatfield:  these  were  probably 
woven  at  Barcheston.  The  detail  of  minute  animal  and 
vegetable  forms  — the  flora  and  fauna,  as  it  were  in 
worsted  — are  unique  for  their  conscientious  finish. 
They  almost  amount  to  catalogues  of  plants  and  beasts. 
The  one  which  displays  Summer  is  a herbal  and  a 
Noah’s  Ark  turned  loose  about  a full-sized  Classical 
Deity,  who  presides  in  the  centre  of  the  composition. 

Among  English  makers  of  tapestries  was  a workman 
named  John  Bakes,  who  was  paid  the  magnificent  sum 
of  twelve  pence  a day,  while  in  an  entry  in  another 
document  he  is  said  to  have  received  only  fourpence 
daily. 

The  Hunting  Tapestries  belonging  to  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire  are  as  perfect  specimens  as  any  that  exist 
of  the  best  period  of  the  art.  They  are  represented  in 
colour  in  W.  G.  Thomson’s  admirable  work  on  Tapes- 
tries, and  are  thus  available  to  most  readers  in  some 
public  collection. 

Another  splendidly  decorative  specimen  is  at  Hampton 
Court,  being  a series  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins.  They 
measure  about  twenty-five  by  thirteen  feet  each,  and 
are  worked  in  heavy  wools  and  silks. 

As  technical  facility  developed,  certain  weaknesses 
began  to  show  themselves.  Tapestry  weavers  had  their 
favourite  figures,  which,  to  save  themselves  trouble,  they 
would  often  substitute  for  others  in  the  original  design. 

Arras  tapestries  were  no  longer  made  in  the  six- 


172  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


teenth  century,  and  the  best  work  of  that  time  was 
accomplished  in  the  Netherlands.  About  1540  Brussels 
probably  stood  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  cities  famous 
for  the  production  of  these  costly  textiles.  The  Raphael 
tapestries  were  made  there,  by  Peter  van  Aelst,  under 
the  order  of  Pope  Leo  X.  They  were  executed  in  the 
space  of  four  years,  being  finished  in  1519,  only  a year 
before  Raphael’s  death. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Brussels  workers  began 
to  make  certain  “ short  cuts  ” not  quite  legitimate 
in  an  art  of  the  highest  standing,  such  as  touching 
up  the  faces  with  liquid  dyes,  and  using  the  same  to 
enhance  the  effect  after  the  work  was  finished.  A law 
was  passed  that  this  must  not  be  done  on  any  tapestry 
worth  more  than  twelve  pence  a yard.  In  spite  of  this 
trickery,  the  Netherlandish  tapestries  led  all  others  in 
popularity  in  that  century. 

It  was  almost  invariable,  especially  in  Flemish  work, 
to  treat  Scriptural  subjects  as  dressed  in  the  costume  of 
the  period  in  which  the  tapestry  happened  to  be  made. 
When  one  sees  the  Prodigal  Son  attired  in  a delightful 
Flemish  costume  of  a well-appointed  dandy,  and  Adam 
presented  to  God  the  Father,  both  being  clothed  in 
Netherlandish  garments  suitable  for  Burgomasters  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  then  we  can  believe  that  the 
following  description,  quoted  by  the  Countess  of  Wilton, 
is  hardly  overdrawn.  a In  a corner  of  the  apartment 
stood  a bed,  the  tapestry  of  which  was  en wrought  with 
gaudy  colours,  representing  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  Garden 


Tapestry 


173 


of  Eden.  . . . Adam  was  presenting  our  first  mother 
with  a large  yellow  apple  gathered  from  a tree  which 
scarcely  reached  his  knee.  ...  To  the  left  of  Eve 
appeared  a church,  and  a dark  robed  gentleman  holding 
something  in  his  hand  which  looked  like  a pin  cushion, 
but  doubtless  was  intended  for  a book;  he  seemed 
pointing  to  the  holy  edifice,  as  if  reminding  them  that 
they  were  not  yet  married ! On  the  ground  lay  the  rib, 
out  of  which  Eve,  who  stood  a head  higher  than  Adam, 
had  been  formed:  both  of  them  were  very  respectably 
clothed  in  the  ancient  Saxon  costume;  even  the  angel 
wore  breeches,  which,  being  blue,  contrasted  well  with 
his  flaming  red  wings.” 

In  France,  the  leading  tapestry  works  were  at  Tours 
in  the  early  sixteenth  century.  A Flemish  weaver,  Jean 
Duval,  started  the  work  there  in  1540.  Until  1552  he 
and  his  three  sons  laboured  together  with  great  results, 
and  they  left  a large  number  of  craftsmen  to  follow  in 
their  footsteps. 

In  Italy  the  art  had  almost  died  out  in  the  early 
sixteenth  century,  but  revived  in  full  and  florid  force 
under  the  Raphaelesque  influence. 

King  Rene  of  Anjou  collected  tapestries  so  assidu- 
ously that  the  care  and  repairing  of  them  occupied  the 
whole  time  of  a staff  of  workers,  who  were  employed 
steadily,  living  in  the  palace,  and  sleeping  at  night  in 
the  various  apartments  in  which  the  hangings  were 
especially  costly. 

Queen  Jeanne,  the  mother  of  Henri  IV.,  was  a skilled 


174  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


worker  in  tapestry.  To  quote  Miss  Freer  in  the  Life 
of  Jeanne  d’Albret,  “ During  the  hours  which  the  queen 
allowed  herself  for  relaxation,  she  worked  tapestry  and 
discoursed  with  some  one  of  the  learned  men  whom 
she  protected.”  This  queen  was  of  an  active  mental 
calibre  and  one  to  whom  physical  repose  was  most 
repugnant.  She  was  a regular  and  pious  attendant  at 
church,  but  sitting  still  was  torture  to  her,  and  listening 
to  the  droning  sermons  put  her  to  sleep.  So,  with  a 
courage  to  be  admired,  Jeanne  “ demanded  permission 
from  the  Synod  to  work  tapestry  during  the  sermon. 
This  request  was  granted;  from  thenceforth  Queen 
Jeanne,  bending  decorously  over  her  tapestry  frame, 
and  busy  with  her  needle,  gave  due  attention.” 

The  Chateau  of  Blois,  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XII. 
and  Ann  of  Brittany,  is  described  as  being  regally 
appointed  with  tapestries:  “Those  which  were  hung 
in  the  apartments  of  the  king  and  queen,”  says  the 
chronicler,  “were  all  full  of  gold;  and  the  tapestries 
and  embroideries  of  cloth  of  gold  and  of  silk  had  others 
beneath  them  ornamented  with  personages  and  histories 
as  those  were  above.  Indeed,  there  was  so  great  a 
number  of  rich  tapestries,  velvet  carpets,  and  bed 
coverings,  of  gold  and  silk,  that  there  was  not  a cham- 
ber, hall,  or  wardrobe,  that  was  not  full.” 

In  an  inventory  of  the  Princess  of  Burgundy  there 
occurs  this  curious  description  of  a tapestry:  “The 
three  tapestries  of  the  Church  Militant,  wrought  in  gold, 
whereon  may  be  seen  represented  God  Almighty  seated 


Tapestry 


175 


in  majesty,  and  around  him  many  cardinals,  and  below 
him  many  princes  who  present  to  him  a church.” 

Household  luxury  in  England  is  indicated  by  a quaint 
writer  in  1586:  “ In  noblemen's  houses,”  he  says,  “ it 
is  not  rare  to  see  abundance  of  arras,  rich  hangings,  of 
tapestrie  . . . Turkie  wood,  pewter,  brasse,  and  fine 
linen.  . . . In  times  past  the  costly  furniture  stayed 
there,  whereas  now  it  is  discarded  yet  lower,  even  unto 
the  inferior  artificers,  and  many  farmers  . . . have 
for  the  most  part  learned  to  garnish  their  beds  with 
tapestries  and  hangings,  and  their  tables  with  carpetts 
and  fine  napery.” 

Henry  VIII.  was  devoted  to  tapestry  collecting,  also. 
An  agent  who  was  buying  for  him  in  the  Netherlands 
in  1538,  wrote  to  the  king:  “I  have  made  a stay  in 
my  hands  of  two  hundred  ells  of  goodly  tapestry;  there 
hath  not  been  brought  this  twenty  year  eny  so  good 
for  the  price.”  Henry  VIII.  had  in  his  large  collection 
many  subjects,  among  them  such  characteristic  pieces 
as:  “ ten  peeces  of  the  rich  story  of  King  David  ” (in 
which  Bathsheba  doubtless  played  an  important  part), 
“ seven  peeces  of  the  Stories  of  Ladies,”  “ A peece  with 
a man  and  woman  and  a flagon,”  “ A peece  of  verdure 
. . . having  poppinjays  at  the  nether  corners,”  “ One 
peece  of  Susannah,”  “ Six  fine  new  tapestries  of  the 
History  of  Helena  and  Paris.” 

A set  of  six  “ verdure  ” tapestries  was  owned  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  which  “ served  for  the  hanging  of 
Durham  Hall  of  inferior  days.”  The  hangings  in  a hall 


176  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


in  Chester  are  described  as  depicting  “ Adam,  Noe,  and 
his  Shyppe.”  In  1563  a monk  of  Canterbury  was  men- 
tioned as  a tapestry  weaver.  At  York,  Norwich,  and 
other  cities,  were  also  to  be  found  “ Arras  Workers  ” 
during  the  sixteenth  century. 

There  was  an  amusing  law  suit  in  1598,  which  was 
brought  by  a gentleman,  Charles  Lister,  against  one 
Mrs.  Bridges,  for  accepting  from  him,  on  the  understand- 
ing of  an  engagement  in  marriage,  a suite  of  tapestries  for 
her  apartment.  He  sued  for  the  return  of  his  gifts! 

Among  the  State  Papers  of  James  I.,  there  is  a letter 
in  which  the  King  remarks  “ Sir  Francis  Crane  desires 
to  know  if  my  baby  will  have  him  to  hasten  the  making 
of  that  suite  of  tapestry  that  he  commanded  him.” 

In  Florence,  the  art  flourished  under  the  Medici. 
In  1546  a regular  Academy  of  instruction  in  tapestry 
weaving  was  set  up,  under  the  direction  of  Flemish 
masters.  All  the  leading  artists  of  the  Golden  Age 
furnished  designs  which,  though  frequently  inappro- 
priate for  being  rendered  in  textile,  were  fine  pictures, 
at  any  rate.  In  Venice,  too,  there  were  work  shops,  but 
the  influence  of  Italy  was  Flemish  in  every  case  so  far 
as  technical  instruction  was  concerned.  The  most  cele- 
brated artists  of  the  Renaissance  made  cartoons : 
Raphael,  Giulio  Romano,  Jouvenet,  Le  Brun,  and 
numerous  others,  in  various  countries. 

The  Gobelins  work  in  Paris  was  inaugurated  in  the 
fifteenth  century  under  Jean  Gobelins,  a native  of 
Rheims.  His  son,  Philibert,  and  later,  many  descend- 


176  Arts  and  Crafts  In  \L  Middle  Ages 


in  Chester  are  described  as  d<  i v Ham,  Noe,  and 

his  Shyppe.”  In  1563  a monk  ■ an;  ury  was  men- 
tioned as  a tapestry  weaver.  At  York  Norwich,  and 
other  cities,  were  also  to  be  fount!  Arras  Workers” 
during  the  sixteenth  century. 

There  was  an  amusing  law  suit  in  ! 'ns  wmeh  was 
brought  by  a gentleman,  Charles  Lister,  agaiiwt  one 
Mrs.  Bridges,  for  accepting  from  him,  on  the  umh  .rsumd  * 
ing  of  an  engagement  in  marriage,  a suite  of  tapestries  icn 
her  apartment.  He  sued  for  the  return  of  his  gifts! 

Among  the  State  Papers  of  James  I.,  there  is  a letter 
in  which  the  King  remarks  “ Sir  Francis  Crane  desires 
to  know  if  my  baby  will  have  him  to  hasten  the  making 
of  that  suite  of  tapestry  that  he  commanded  him.” 

In  Florence,  tb^A^ESlFRYj  -hE^RESE^lN&epifel^iGi. 
In  1546  a regular1 UfcalMnlJi&f 1 tapestry 
weaving  was  set  up,  under  the  direction  of  Flemish 
masters.  All  the  leading  artists  of  the  Golden  Age 
furnished  designs  which,  though  frequently  inappro- 
priav  »r  being  rendered  in  textile,  were  fine  pictures, 
at  any  >.  In  Venice,  too,  there  were  work  shops,  but 
the  in fiiv of  Italy  w?\:-  Flemish  in  case  so  far 

as  techniea  Hsmu-bon  .-owvr/iWl  The 
bra  ted  art-  : . the  n>.  ■ , ■vsnn'--  made 

Raphael , GiuF  > ?lo» aartf  j;  V-'Uvone*  n.  and 

The  Gobelins  wort  :u  Vu-:-  v*hs  ■ u>  the 

fifteenth  century  under  t -c  ’ ? .dive  of 

Rheims.  His  son,  Philibert,  and  later,  many  descend- 


Tapestry 


177 


ants  persevered  steadily  at  the  work;  the  art  prospered 
under  Francis  I.,  the  whole  force  of  tapestry  weavers 
being  brought  together  at  Fontainebleau,  and  under 
Henry  II.,  the  direction  of  the  whole  was  given  to  the 
celebrated  artist  Philibert  Delorme.  In  1630  the  Gobe- 
lins was  fully  established  as  a larger  plant,  and  has 
never  made  another  move.  The  work  has  increased 
ever  since  those  days,  on  much  the  same  general  lines. 
Celebrated  French  artists  have  designed  tapestries: 
Watteau,  Boucher,  and  others  were  interpreted  by  the 
brilliant  manager  whose  signature  appears  on  the  works, 
Cozette,  who  was  manager  from  1736  until  1792.  With 
this  technical  perfection  came  the  death  of  the  art  of 
tapestry:  the  pictures  might  as  well  have  been  painted 
on  canvas,  and  all  feeling  for  the  material  was  lost,  so 
that  the  naive  charm  of  the  original  workers  ceased  to 
be  a part  of  the  production. 

Among  European  collections  now  visible,  the  best  is 
in  Madrid,  where  over  six  hundred  tapestries  may  be 
seen,  chiefly  Flemish,  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  The  collection  at  the  Pitti  Palace  in  Florence 
comprises  six  hundred,  while  in  the  Vatican  are  pre- 
served the  original  Raphael  tapestries.  South  Kensing- 
ton Museum,  too,  is  rich  in  interesting  examples  of  vari- 
ous schools.  It  is  a very  helpful  collection  to  students, 
especially,  although  not  so  large  as  some  others. 

In  1663,  “ two  well  intended  statutes  ” were  intro- 
duced dealing  with  curiously  opposite  matters:  one 
was  to  encourage  linen  and  tapestry  manufacture  in 


178  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


England,  and  the  other  was  “ for  regulating  the  packing 
of  herrings!  ” 

The  famous  English  Mortlake  tapestry  manufactory 
was  not  established  until  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
that  is  rather  late  for  us.  The  progress  of  craftsmanship 
has  been  steady,  especially  at  the  Gobelins  in  France. 
Many  other  centres  of  industry  developed,  however, 
in  various  countries.  The  study  of  modern  tapestry  is 
a branch  by  itself  with  which  we  are  unable  to  concern 
ourselves  now. 


CHAPTER  VI 


EMBROIDERIES 

The  materials  used  as  groundwork  for  mediaeval 
embroideries  were  rich  in  themselves.  Samit  was  the 
favourite  — shimmering,  and  woven  originally  of  solid 
flat  gold  wire.  Ciclatoun  was  also  a brilliant  textile,  as 
also  was  Cendal.  Cendal  silk  is  spoken  of  by  early 
writers. 

The  first  use  of  silk  is  interesting  to  trace.  A monopoly, 
a veritable  silk  trust,  was  established  in  533,  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  Women  were  employed  at  the  Court 
of  Justinian  to  preside  over  the  looms,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  silk  was  not  allowed  elsewhere.  The  only 
hindrance  to  this  scheme  was  that  the  silk  itself  had  to 
be  brought  from  China.  But  in  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
two  monks  who  had  been  travelling  in  the  Orient, 
brought  to  the  emperor,  as  curiosities,  some  silkworms 
and  cocoons.  They  obtained  some  long  hollow  walking 
sticks,  which  they  packed  full  of  silkworms’  eggs,  and 
thus  imported  the  producers  of  the  raw  material.  The 
European  silk  industry,  in  fabrics,  embroideries,  velvets, 
and  such  commodities,  may  owe  its  origin  to  this  bit 
of  monastic  enterprise  in  550. 

Silk  garments  were  very  costly,  however,  and  it  was 

179 


180  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


not  every  lady  in  early  times  who  could  have  such 
luxuries.  It  is  said  that  even  the  Emperor  Aurelian 
refused  his  wife  her  request  for  just  one  single  cloak 
of  silk,  saying:  “ No,  I could  never  think  of  buying 
such  a thing,  for  it  sells  for  its  weight  in  gold!  ” 

Fustian  and  taffeta  were  less  costly,  but  frequently 
used  in  important  work,  as  also  were  sarcenet  and 
camora.  Velvet  and  satin  were  of  later  date,  not  occur- 
ring until  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Baudekin,  a good  silk  and  golden  weave,  was  very 
popular. 

Cut  velvets  with  elaborate  patterns  were  made  in 
Genoa.  The  process  consisted  in  leaving  the  main 
ground  in  the  original  fine  rib  which  resulted  from 
weaving,  while  in  the  pattern  these  little  ribs  were  split 
open,  making  that  part  of  a different  ply  from  the  rest 
of  the  material,  in  fact,  being  the  finished  velvet  as  we 
now  know  it,  while  the  ground  remained  uncut,  and  had 
more  the  appearance  of  silk  reps.  Velvet  is  first  men- 
tioned in  England  in  1295,  but  probably  existed  earlier 
on  the  Continent. 

Both  Roger  de  Wendover  and  Matthew  Paris  mention 
a stuff  called  “ imperial:  ” it  was  partly  gold  in  weave, 
but  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  its  actual  texture. 

Baudekin  was  a very  costly  textile  of  gold  and  silk 
which  was  used  largely  in  altar  coverings  and  hangings, 
such  as  dossals;  by  degrees  the  name  became  synony- 
mous with  “ baldichin,”  and  in  Italy  the  whole  altar 
canopy  is  still  called  a baldachino. 


Embroideries 


181 


During  Royal  Progresses  the  streets  were  always 
hung  with  rich  cloth  of  gold.  As  Chaucer  makes  allusion 
to  streets 

“ By  ordinance  throughout  the  city  large 
Hanged  with  cloth  of  gold,  and  not  with  serge,” 


so  Leland  tells  how  the  Queen  of  Henry  VII.  was  con- 
ducted to  her  coronation  and  “ all  the  stretes  through 
which  she  should  pass  were  clenely  dressed  . . . with 
cloths  of  tapestry  and  Arras,  and  some  stretes,  as 
Cheepe,  hanged  with  rich  cloths  of  gold,  velvetts,  and 
silks.”  And  in  Machyn’s  Diary,  he  says  that  “ as  late 
as  1555  at  Bow  church  in  London,  was  hangyd  with 
cloth  of  gold  and  with  rich  Arras.” 

The  word  “ satin  ” is  derived  from  the  silks  of  the 
Mediterranean,  called  “ aceytuni,”  which  became  “ ze- 
tani  ” in  Italian,  and  gradually  changed  through  French 
and  English  influence,  to  “ satin.”  The  first  mention 
of  it  in  England  is  about  1350,  when  Bishop  Grandison 
made  a gift  of  choice  satins  to  Exeter  Cathedral. 

The  Dalmatic  of  Charlemagne  is  embroidered  on  blue 
satin,  although  this  is  a rare  early  example  of  the  mate- 
rial. At  Constantinople,  also,  as  early  as  1204,  Baldwin 
II.  wore  satin  at  his  coronation.  It  was  nearly  always 
made  in  a fiery  red  in  the  early  days.  It  is  mentioned 
in  a Welsh  poem  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a traveller  who  wrote  in  1161, 
mentions  that  the  Jews  were  living  in  great  numbers 
in  Thebes,  and  that  they  made  silks  there  at  that  time. 


182  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


There  is  record  that  in  the  late  eleventh  century  a 
Norman  Abbot  brought  home  from  Apulia  a quantity 
of  heavy  and  fine  silk,  from  which  four  copes  were  made. 
French  silks  were  not  remarkable  until  the  sixteenth 
century,  while  those  of  the  Netherlands  led  all  others 
as  early  as  the  thirteenth. 

Shot  silks  were  popular  in  England  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  York  Cathedral  possessed,  in  1543,  a “ vest- 
ment  of  changeable  taffety  for  Good  Friday.” 

St.  Dunstan  is  reported  to  have  once  “ tinted  ” a 
sacerdotal  vestment  to  oblige  a lady,  thus  departing 
from  his  regular  occupation  as  goldsmith  to  perform 
the  office  of  a dyer  of  stuff. 

Many  rich  mediaeval  textiles  were  ornamented  by 
designs,  which  usually  show  interlaces  and  animal  forms, 
and  sometimes  conventional  floral  ornament.  Patterns 
originated  in  the  East,  and,  through  Byzantine  influence, 
in  Italy,  and  Saracenic  in  Spain,  they  were  adopted  and 
modified  by  Europeans.  In  1295  St.  Paul’s  in  London 
owned  a hanging  “ patterned  with  wheels  and  two- 
headed  birds.”  Sicilian  silks,  and  many  others  of  the 
contemporary  textiles,  display  variations  of  the  “ tree 
of  life  ” pattern.  This  consists  of  a little  conventional 
shrub,  sometimes  hardly  more  than  a “ budding  rod,” 
with  two  birds  or  animals  advancing  vis-a-vis  on  either 
side.  Sometimes  these  are  two  peacocks;  often  lions  or 
leopards  and  frequently  griffins  and  various  smaller 
animals.  Whenever  one  sees  a little  tree  or  a single 
stalk,  no  matter  how  conventionally  treated,  with  a 


Embroideries 


183 


couple  of  matched  animals  strutting  up  to  each  other  on 
either  side,  this  pattern  owes  its  origin  to  the  old  tradition 
of  the  decorative  motive  usual  in  Persia  and  in  Byzan- 
tium, the  Tree  of  Life,  or  Horu.  The  origin  of  patterns 
does  not  come  within  our  scope,  and  has  been  excellently 
treated  in  the  various  books  of  Lewis  Day,  and  other 
writers  on  this  subject. 

Textiles  of  Italian  manufacture  may  be  seen  repre- 
sented in  the  paintings  of  the  old  masters:  Orcagna, 
Francia,  Crivelli,  and  others,  who  delighted  in  the  ren- 
dering of  rich  stuffs;  later,  they  abound  in  the  creations 
of  Veronese  and  Titian.  A “ favourite  Italian  vege- 
table/’ as  Dr.  Rock  quaintly  expresses  it,  is  the  arti- 
choke, which,  often,  set  in  oval  forms,  is  either  outlined 
or  worked  solidly  in  the  fabric. 

Almeria  was  a rich  city  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
noted  for  its  textiles.  A historian  of  that  period  writes : 
11  Christians  of  all  nations  came  to  its  port  to  buy  and 
to  sell.  From  thence  . . . they  travelled  to  other  parts 
of  the  interior  of  the  country,  where  they  loaded  their 
vessels  with  such  goods  as  they  wanted.  Costly  silken 
robes  of  the  brightest  colours  are  manufactured  in  Al- 
meria.” Granada  was  famous  too,  a little  later,  for  its 
silks  and  woven  goods.  About  1562  Navagiero  wrote: 
“ All  sorts  of  cloth  and  silks  are  made  there:  the  silks 
made  at  Granada  are  much  esteemed  all  over  Spain; 
they  are  not  so  good  as  those  that  come  from  Italy. 
There  are  several  looms,  but  they  do  not  yet  know  how 
to  work  them  well.  They  make  good  taffetas,  sarcenet, 


184  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


and  silk  serges.  The  velvets  are  not  bad,  but  those 
that  are  made  at  Valencia  are  better  in  quality.” 

Marco  Polo  says  of  the  Persians  in  certain  sections; 
“ There  are  excellent  artificers  in  the  cities,  who  make 
wonderful  things  in  gold,  silk,  and  embroidery.  ... 
In  veins  of  the  mountains  stones  are  found,  commonly 
called  turquoises,  and  other  jewels.  There  also  are 
made  all  sorts  of  arms  and  ammunition  for  war,  and  by 
the  women  excellent  needlework  in  silks,  with  all  sorts 
of  creatures  very  admirably  wrought  therein.”  Marco 
Polo  also  reports  the  King  of  Tartary  as  wearing  on  his 
birthday  a most  precious  garment  of  gold,  while  his 
barons  wore  the  same,  and  had  given  them  girdles  of 
gold  and  silver,  and  “ pearls  and  garments  of  great  price.” 
This  Khan  also  “ has  the  tenths  of  all  wool,  silk,  and 
hemp,  which  he  causes  to  be  made  into  clothes,  in  a house 
for  that  purpose  appointed:  for  all  trades  are  bound 
one  day  in  the  week  to  serve  him.”  He  clothed  his 
armies  with  this  tythe  wool. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  times  a fabric  composed  of  fine 
basket-weaving  of  thin  flat  strips  of  pure  gold  was 
used;  sometimes  the  flat  metal  was  woven  on  a warp 
of  scarlet  silk  threads.  Later  strips  of  gilded  parchment 
were  fraudulently  substituted  for  the  genuine  flat 
metal  thread.  Often  the  woof  of  gold  strips  was  so  solid 
and  heavy  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  a silk  warp 
of  six  strands  to  support  its  wear. 

Gold  cloth  was  of  varying  excellence,  however : among 
the  items  in  an  inventory  for  the  Earl  of  Warwick  in 


Embroideries 


185 


the  time  of  Henry  VI.,  there  is  allusion  to  “ one  coat  for 
My  Lord’s  body,  beat  with  fine  gold;  two  coats  for 
heralds,  beat  with  demi-gold.” 

It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  first  wire-drawing 
machines  were  made  about  1360  in  Germany;  they  were 
not  used  in  England  until  about  1560.  Theophilus, 
however,  in  the  eleventh  century,  tells  “ Of  the  instru- 
ments through  which  wires  are  drawn,”  saying  that  they 
consist  of  “ two  irons,  three  fingers  in  breadth,  narrow 
above  and  below,  everywhere  thin,  and  perforated  with 
three  or  four  ranges,  through  which  holes  wires  are 
drawn.”  This  would  seem  to  be  a primitive  form  of  the 
more  developed  instrument.  Wire  drawing  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Christian  Schutz  about  1560. 
In  1623  was  incorporated  in  London,  “ The  Worshipful 
Company  of  Gold  and  Silver  Wire-Drawers.”  The 
preamble  of  their  charter  reads  thus:  “ The  Trade  Art 
of  Drawing  and  flattening  of  gold  and  silver  wire,  and 
making  and  spinning  of  gold  and  silver  thread  and 
stuff e.”  It  seems  as  though  there  were  some  kind  of 
work  that  corresponded  to  wire-drawing,  earlier  than  its 
supposed  introduction,  for  a petition  was  sent  to  King 
Henry  VI.  in  1423,  by  the  “ wise  and  worthy  Communes 
of  London,  & the  Wardens  of  Broderie  in  the  said 
Citie,”  requesting  protection  against  “ deceit  and  de- 
fault in  the  work  of  divers  persons  occupying  the  craft 
of  embroidery;”  and  in  1461  “ An  act  of  Common 
Council  was  passed  respecting  the  gold-drawers,”  show- 
ing that  the  art  was  known  to  some  extent  and 


186  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


practised  at  that  time.  In  the  reign  of  George  II., 
in  1742,  “ An  act  to  prevent  the  counterfeiting  of 
gold  and  silver  lace  and  for  the  settling  and  ad- 
justing the  proportions  of  fine  silver  and  silk,  and 
for  the  better  making  of  gold  and  silver  lace,”  was 
passed. 

Ecclesiastical  vestments  were  often  trimmed  with 
heavy  gold  fringe,  knotted  “ fretty  wise,”  and  the  em- 
broideries were  further  enriched  with  jewels  and  small 
plaques  of  enamel.  Matthew  Paris  relates  a circumstance 
of  certain  garments  being  so  heavily  weighted  with  gold 
that  the  clergy  could  not  walk  in  them,  and,  in  order  to 
get  the  solid  metal  out  again,  it  was  necessary  to  burn 
the  garments  and  thus  melt  the  gold. 

Jewelled  robes  were  often  seen  in  the  Middle  Ages; 
a chasuble  is  described  as  having  been  made  for  the 
Abbot  of  St.  Albans,  in  the  twelfth  century,  which  was 
practically  covered  with  plaques  of  gold  and  precious 
stones.  Imagine  the  unpleasant  physical  sensation  of 
a bishop  in  1404,  who  was  obliged  to  wear  a golden 
mitre  of  which  the  ground  was  set  with  large  pearls, 
bordered  with  balas  rubies,  and  sapphires,  and  trimmed 
with  indefinite  extra  pearls! 

The  body  of  St.  Cecilia,  who  was  martyred  in  230, 
was  interred  in  a garment  of  pure  woven  gold. 

The  cloth  of  solid  gold  which  was  "used  for  state  occa- 
sions was  called  “ tissue;  ” the  thin  paper  in  which  it 
was  wrapped  when  it  was  laid  away  was  known  as  tissue 
paper,  and  Mr.  William  Maskell  states  that  the  name 


Embroideries 


187 


has  clung  to  it,  and  that  is  why  thin  paper  is  called 
“ tissue  paper  ” to-day. 

St.  Peter's  in  Rome  possessed  a great  pair  of  silver 
curtains,  which  hung  at  the  entrance  to  the  church, 
given  by  Pope  Stephen  IV.  in  the  eighth  century. 

Vitruvius  tells  how  to  preserve  the  gold  in  old  em- 
broidery, or  in  worn-out  textiles  where  the  metal  has 
been  extensively  used.  He  says:  “When  gold  is  em- 
broidered on  a garment  which  is  worn  out,  and  no  longer 
fit  for  use,  the  cloth  is  burnt  over  the  fire  in  earthen  pots. 
The  ashes  are  thrown  into  water,  and  quicksilver  added 
to  them.  This  collects  all  particles  of  gold,  and  unites 
with  them.  The  water  is  then  poured  off,  and  the  re- 
siduum placed  in  a cloth,  which,  when  squeezed  with  the 
hands  suffers  the  liquid  quicksilver  to  pass  through  the 
pores  of  the  cloth,  but  retains  the  gold  in  a mass  within 
it." 

An  early  allusion  to  asbestos  woven  as  a cloth  is 
made  by  Marco  Polo,  showing  that  fire-proof  fabrics 
were  known  in  his  time.  In  the  province  of  Chinchin- 
talas,  “ there  is  a mountain  wherein  are  mines  of  steel 
. . . and  also,  as  was  reported,  salamanders,  of  the 
wool  of  which  cloth  was  made,  which  if  cast  into  the  fire, 
cannot  burn.  But  that  cloth  is  in  reality  made  of  stone 
in  this  manner,  as  one  of  my  companions  a Turk,  named 
Curifar,  a man  endued  with  singular  industry,  informed 
me,  who  had  charge  of  the  minerals  in  that  province. 
A certain  mineral  is  found  in  that  mountain  which 
yields  threads  not  unlike  wool;  and  these  being  dried 


188  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


in  the  sun,  are  bruised  in  a brazen  mortar,  and  after- 
wards washed,  and  whatsoever  earthy  substance  sticks 
to  them  is  taken  away.  Lastly,  these  threads  are  spun 
like  ordinary  wool,  and  woven  into  cloth.  And  when 
they  would  whiten  those  cloths,  they  cast  them  into 
the  fire  for  an  hour,  and  then  take  them  out  unhurt 
whiter  than  snow.  After  the  same  manner  they  cleanse 
them  when  they  have  taken  any  spots,  for  no  other 
washing  is  used  to  them,  besides  the  fire.” 

In  the  Middle  Ages  it  would  have  been  possible,  as 
Lady  Alford  suggests,  to  play  the  game  “ Animal, 
Vegetable,  or  Mineral”  with  textiles  only!  Between 
silk,  hemp,  cotton,  gold,  silver,  wool,  flax,  camel's  hair, 
and  asbestos,  surely  the  three  elements  all  played  their 
parts. 

Since  the  first  record  of  Eve  having  “ sewn  fig  leaves 
together  to  make  aprons,”  women  have  used  the  needle 
in  some  form.  In  England,  it  is  said  that  the  first 
needles  were  made  by  an  Indian,  in  1545,  before  which 
time  they  were  imported.  The  old  play,  “ Gammer 
Gurton's  Needle,”  is  based  upon  the  extreme  rarity 
of  these  domestic  implements,  and  the  calamity  occa- 
sioned in  a family  by  their  loss.  There  is  a curious  old 
story  about  a needle,  which  was  supposed  to  possess 
magic  powers.  This  needle  is  reported  to  have  worked 
at  night  while  its  owner  was  resting,  saving  her  all 
personal  responsibility  about  her  mending.  When  the 
old  lady  finally  died,  another  owner  claimed  this  charmed 
needle,  and  began  at  once  to  test  its  powers.  But,  do 


Embroideries 


189 


what  she  would,  she  was  unable  to  force  a thread  through 
its  obstinate  eye.  At  last,  after  trying  all  possible  means 
to  thread  the  needle,  she  took  a magnifying  glass  to 
examine  and  see  what  the  impediment  was,  and,  lo! 
the  eye  of  the  needle  was  filled  with  a great  tear,  — it 
was  weeping  for  the  loss  of  its  old  mistress,  and  no  one 
was  ever  able  to  thread  it  again! 

Embroidery  is  usually  regarded  as  strictly  a woman's 
craft,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  leading  needleworkers 
were  often  men.  The  old  list  of  names  given  by  Louis 
Farcy  has  almost  an  equal  proportion  of  workers  of  both 
sexes.  But  the  finest  work  was  certainly  accomplished 
by  the  conscientious  dwellers  in  cloisters,  and  the  nuns 
devoted  their  vast  leisure  in  those  days  to  this  art. 
Fuller  observes:  “ Nunneries  were  also  good  shee- 

schools,  wherein  the  girls  of  the  neighbourhood  were 
taught  to  read  and  work  . . . that  the  sharpnesse  of 
their  wits  and  suddennesse  of  their  conceits  (which  even 
their  enemies  must  allow  unto  them!)  might  by  educa- 
tion be  improved  into  a judicious  solidity."  In  some 
of  these  schools  the  curriculum  included  “ Reading  and 
sewing,  threepence  a week:  a penny  extra  for  manners." 
An  old  thirteenth  century  work,  called  the  “ Kleine 
Heldenbuch,"  contains  a verse  which  may  be  thus 
translated: 


“ Who  taught  me  to  embroider  in  a frame  with  silk? 
And  to  draw  and  design  the  wild  and  tame 
Beasts  of  the  forest  and  field? 

Also  to  picture  on  plain  surface: 


190  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Round  about  to  place  golden  borders, 

A narrow  and  a broader  one, 

With  stags  and  hinds  lifelike.” 

A study  of  historic  embroidery  should  be  preceded  by 
a general  knowledge  of  the  principle  stitches  employed. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  was  chain  stitch,  in  which 
one  stitch  was  taken  through  the  loop  of  the  stitch 
just  laid.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  often  used.  Some- 
times, when  the  material  was  of  a loose  weave,  it  was 
executed  by  means  of  a little  hook  — the  probable 
origin  of  crochet. 

Tapestry  stitch,  of  which  one  branch  is  cross-stitch, 
was  formed  by  laying  close  single  stitches  of  uniform 
size  upon  a canvas  specially  prepared  for  this  work. 

Fine  embroidery  in  silk  was  usually  executed  in  long 
smooth  stitches  of  irregular  length,  which  merged  into 
each  other.  This  is  generally  known  as  satin  stitch,  for 
the  surface  of  the  work  is  that  of  a satin  texture  when 
the  work  is  completed.  This  was  frequently  executed 
upon  linen,  and  then,  when  the  entire  surface  had  been 
hidden  by  the  close  silk  stitches,  it  was  cut  out  and  trans- 
ferred on  a brocade  background,  this  style  of  rendering 
being  known  as  applique.  Botticelli  recommended  this 
work  as  most  durable  and  satisfactory:  it  is  oftenest 
associated  with  church  embroidery.  A simple  applique 
was  also  done  by  cutting  out  pieces  of  one  material 
and  applying  them  to  another,  hiding  the  edge- joinings 
by  couching  on  a cord.  As  an  improvement  upon  painted 
banners  to  be  used  in  processions,  Botticelli  introduced 


EMBROIDERY  ON  CANVAS,  16TH  CENTURY,  SOUTH  KENSINGTON  MUSEUM 


' 


Embroideries 


191 


this  method  of  cutting  out  and  resetting  colours  upon 
a different  ground.  As  Vasari  says:  “ This  he  did  that 
the  colors  might  not  sink  through,  showing  the  tint  of  the 
cloth  on  each  side.”  But  Dr.  Rock  points  out  that  it  is 
hardly  fair  to  earlier  artificers  to  give  the  entire  credit 
for  this  method  of  work  to  Botticelli,  since  such  cut 
work  or  applique  was  practised  in  Italy  a hundred  years 
before  Botticelli  was  born! 

Sometimes  solid  masses  of  silk  or  gold  thread  were 
laid  in  ordered  flatness  upon  a material,  and  then  sewn 
to  it  by  long  or  short  stitches  at  right  angles.  This  is 
known  as  couching,  and  is  a very  effective  way  of  econo- 
mizing material  by  displaying  it  all  on  the  surface.  As 
a rule,  however,  the  surface  wears  off  somewhat,  but 
it  is  possible  to  execute  it  so  that  it  is  as  durable  as 
embroidery  which  has  been  rendered  in  separate  stitches. 

In  Sicily  it  was  a common  practice  to  use  coral  in 
embroideries  as  well  as  pearls.  Coral  work  is  usually 
called  Sicilian  work,  though  it  was  also  sometimes 
executed  in  Spain. 

The  garments  worn  by  the  Byzantines  were  very 
ornate ; they  were  made  of  woven  silk  and  covered  with 
elaborate  devices.  In  the  fourth  century  the  Bishop 
of  Amasia  ridiculed  the  extravagant  dress  of  his  con- 
temporaries. “ When  men  appear  in  the  streets  thus 
dressed,”  he  says,  “ the  passers  by  look  at  them  as  at 
painted  walls.  Their  clothes  are  pictures,  which  little 
children  point  out  to  one  another.  The  saintlier  sort 
wear  likenesses  of  Christ,  the  Marriage  of  Galilee,  and 


192  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Lazarus  raised  from  the  dead/ 7 Allusion  was  made 
in  a sermon:  “ Persons  who  arrayed  themselves  like 
painted  walls  77  “ with  beasts  and  flowers  all  over  them  77 
were  denounced! 

In  the  early  Dark  Ages  there  was  some  prejudice 
against  these  rich  embroideries.  In  the  sixth  century 
the  Bishop  St.  Cesaire  of  Arles  forbade  his  nuns  to 
embroider  robes  with  precious  stones  or  painting  and 
flowers.  King  Withaf  of  Mercia  willed  to  the  Abbey 
of  Croyland  “ my  purple  mantle  which  I wore  at  my 
Coronation,  to  be  made  into  a cope,  to  be  used  by  those 
who  minister  at  the  holy  altar : and  also  my  golden  veil, 
embroidered  with  the  Siege  of  Troy,  to  be  hung  up  in 
the  Church  on  my  anniversary.77  St.  Asterius  preached 
to  his  people,  “ Strive  to  follow  in  your  lives  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Gospel,  rather  than  have  the  miracles  of  Our 
Redeemer  embroidered  on  your  outward  dress! 77  This 
prejudice,  however,  was  not  long  lived,  and  the  em- 
broidered vestments  and  garments  continued  to  hold 
their  popularity  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
Renaissance. 

It  has  been  said  on  grave  authority  that  “ Woman 
is  an  animal  that  delights  in  the  toilette,77  while  Petrarch, 
in  1366,  recognized  the  power  of  fashion  over  its  vota- 
ries. “ Who  can  see  with  patience,77  he  writes,  “ the 
monstrous  fantastical  inventions  which  people  of  our 
times  have  invented  to  deform  rather  than  adorn  their 
persons?  Who  can  behold  without  indignation  their 
long  pointed  shoes,  their  caps  with  feathers,  their  hair 


Embroideries 


193 


twisted  and  hanging  down  like  tails,  . . . their  bellies 
so  cruelly  squeezed  with  cords  that  they  suffer  as  much 
pain  from  vanity  as  the  martyrs  suffered  for  religion!  ” 
And  yet  who  shall  say  whether  a “ dress-reform  ” Laura 
would  have  charmed  any  more  surely  the  eye  of  the 
poet? 

Chaucer,  in  England,  also  deplores  the  fashions  of  his 
day,  alluding  to  the  “ sinful  costly  array  of  clothing, 
namely,  in  too  much  superfluity  or  else  indisordinate 
scantiness!  ” Changing  fashions  have  always  been 
the  despair  of  writers  who  have  tried  to  lay  down  rules 
for  aesthetic  effect  in  dress.  “ An  Englishman,”  says 
Harrison,  “ endeavouring  some  time  to  write  of  our 
attire  . . . when  he  saw  what  a difficult  piece  of  work 
he  had  taken  in  hand,  he  gave  over  his  travail,  and  onely 
drue  a picture  of  a naked  man  unto  whom  he  gave  a 
pair  of  shears  in  the  one  hand  and  a piece  of  cloth  in 
the  other,  to  the  end  that  he  should  shape  his  apparel 
after  such  fashion  as  himself  liked,  sith  he  could  find  no 
garment  that  could  please  him  any  while  together: 
and  this  he  called  an  Englishman.” 

Edward  the  Confessor  wore  State  robes  which  had 
been  beautifully  embroidered  with  gold  by  his  accom- 
plished wife,  Edgitha.  In  the  Royal  Rolls  of  Edward 
III.  , in  1335,  we  find  allusion  to  two  vests  of  green  velvet 
embroidered  respectively  with  sea  sirens  and  coats  of 
arms.  The  tunics  worn  over  armour  offered  great  op- 
portunities to  the  needleworker.  They  were  richly 
embroidered,  usually  in  heraldic  style.  When  Symon, 


194  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Bishop  of  Ely,  performed  the  ceremony  of  Churching  for 
Queen  Philippa,  the  royal  dame  bestowed  upon  him 
the  gown  which  she  wore  on  that  occasion;  it  is  de- 
scribed as  a murrey-coloured  velvet,  powdered  with 
golden  squirrels,  and  was  of  such  voluminous  pattern 
that  it  was  cut  over  into  three  copes!  Bridal  gowns 
were  sometimes  given  to  churches,  as  well. 

St.  Louis  of  France  was  what  might  be  called  temper- 
ate in  dress.  The  Sire  de  Joinville  says  he  “ never  saw 
a single  embroidered  coat  or  ornamented  saddle  in  the 
possession  of  the  king,  and  reproved  his  son  for  having 
such  things.  I replied  that  he  would  have  acted  better 
if  he  had  given  them  in  charity,  and  had  his  dress  made 
of  good  sendal,  lined  and  strengthened  with  his  arms, 
like  as  the  king  his  father  had  done!  ” 

At  the  marriage  of  the  Lord  of  Touraine  in  1389, 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  presented  magnificent  habits 
and  clothing  to  his  nephew  the  Count  of  Nevers : among 
these  were  tunics,  ornamented  with  embroidered  trees 
conventionally  displayed  on  their  backs,  fronts,  and 
sleeves;  others  showed  heraldic  blazonry,  while  a blue 
velvet  tunic  was  covered  with  balas  rubies  set  in  pearls, 
alternating  with  suns  of  solid  gold  with  great  solitaire 
pearls  as  centres.  Again,  in  1390,  when  the  king  visited 
Dijon,  he  presented  to  the  same  nephew  a set  of  har- 
nesses for  jousting.  Some  of  them  were  composed 
largely  of  sheets  of  beaten  gold  and  silver.  In  some 
gold  and  silver  marguerites  were  introduced  also. 

Savonarola  reproved  the  Florentine  nuns  for  employ- 


i 


Embroideries 


195 


ing  their  valuable  time  in  manufacturing  “ gold  laces 
with  which  to  adorn  persons  and  houses.”  The  Floren- 
tine gold  lace  was  very  popular  in  England,  in  the  days 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  later  the  art  was  taken  up  by 
the  “ wire-drawers  ” of  England,  and  a native  industry 
took  the  place  of  the  imported  article.  Among  pro- 
hibited gowns  in  Florence  was  one  owned  by  Donna 
Francesca  degli  Albizi,  “ a black  mantle  of  raised  cloth: 
the  ground  is  yellow,  and  over  it  are  woven  birds, 
parrots,  butterflies,  red  and  white  roses,  and  many 
figures  in  vermilion  and  green,  with  pavilions  and 
dragons,  and  yellow  and  black  letters  and  trees,  and 
many  other  figures  of  various  colours,  the  whole  lined 
with  cloth  in  hues  of  black  and  vermilion.”  As  one  reads 
this  description,  it  seems  as  though  the  artistic  sense 
as  much  as  conscientious  scruples  might  have  revolted 
and  led  to  its  banishment! 

Costumes  for  tournaments  were  also  lavish  in  their 
splendour.  In  1467  Benedetto  Salutati  ordered  made  for 
such  a pageant  all  the  trappings  for  two  horses,  worked 
in  two  hundred  pounds  of  silver  by  Pollajuolo;  thirty 
pounds  of  pearls  were  also  used  to  trim  the  garments 
of  the  sergeants.  No  wonder  Savonarola  was  enthu- 
siastic in  his  denunciation  of  such  extravagance. 

Henry  VIII.  had  “ a pair  of  hose  of  purple  silk  and 
Venice  gold,  woven  like  a caul.”  For  one  of  his  favoured 
lady  friends,  also,  there  is  an  item,  of  a certain  sum 
“ paid,  for  one  pound  of  gold  for  embroidering  a night- 
gown.” 


196  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  unrivalled  excellence  of  English  woollen  cloths 
was  made  manifest  at  an  early  period.  There  was  a 
fabric  produced  at  Norwich  of  such  superiority  that  a 
law  was  passed  prohibiting  monks  from  wearing  it,  the 
reason  being  that  it  was  considered  “ smart  enough  for 
military  men!  ” This  was  in  1422.  The  name  of  Wors- 
ted was  given  to  a certain  wool  because  it  was  made 
at  Worsted,  a town  in  Norfolk;  later  the  “worsted 
thread  ” was  sold  for  needleworkers. 
i Ladies  made  their  own  gold  thread  in  the  Middle 
Ages  by  winding  a fine  flat  gold  wire,  scarcely  of  more 
body  than  a foil,  around  a silk  thread. 

Patches  were  embroidered  into  place  upon  such 
clothes  or  vestments  as  were  torn:  those  who  did  this 
work  were  as  well  recognized  as  the  original  designers, 
and  were  called  “ healers  ” of  clothes! 

Embroidered  bed  hangings  were  very  much  in  order 
in  mediaeval  times  in  England.  In  the  eleventh  century 
there  lived  a woman  who  had  emigrated  from  the 
Hebrides,  and  who  had  the  reputation  for  witchcraft, 
chiefly  based  upon  the  unusually  exquisite  needlework 
on  her  bed  curtains!  The  name  of  this  reputed  sor- 
ceress was  Thergunna.  Bequests  in  important  wills 
indicate  the  sumptuous  styles  which  were  usual  among 
people  of  position.  The  Fair  Maid  of  Kent  left  to  her 
son  her  “ new  bed  curtains  of  red  velvet,  embroidered 
with  ostrich  feathers  of  silver,  and  heads  of  leopards 
of  gold/’  while  in  1380  the  Earl  of  March  bequeathed 
his  “ large  bed  of  black  satin  embroidered  with  white 


Embroideries 


197 


lions  and  gold  roses,  and  the  escutcheons  of  the  arms 
of  Mortimer  and  Ulster.”  This  outfit  must  have  re- 
sembled a Parisian  “ first  class”  funeral!  The  widow 
of  Henry  II.  slept  in  a sort  of  mourning  couch  of  black 
velvet,  which  must  have  made  her  feel  as  if  she  too  were 
laid  out  for  her  own  burial! 

A child’s  bedquilt  was  found  mentioned  in  an  inven- 
tory of  furniture  at  the  Priory  of  Durham,  in  1446, 
which  was  embroidered  in  the  four  corners  with  the 
Evangelistic  symbols.  In  the  “ Squier  of  Lowe  De- 
gree,” a fifteenth  century  romance,  there  is  allusion  to  a 
bed,  of  which  the  head  sheet  is  described  “ with  diamonds 
set  and  rubies  bright.”  The  king  of  England,  in  1388, 
refers,  in  a letter,  to  “ a bed  of  gold  cloth.”  Wall  hang- 
ings in  bedrooms  were  also  most  elaborate,  and  the 
effect  of  a chamber  adorned  with  gold  and  needlework 
must  have  been  fairly  regal.  An  embroiderer  named 
Delobel  made  a set  of  furnishings  for  the  bedroom  of 
Louis  XIV.  the  work  upon  which  occupied  three  years. 
The  subject  was  the  Triumph  of  Venus. 

In  South  Kensington  Museum  there  is  a fourteenth 
century  linen  cloth  of  German  workmanship,  upon  which 
occurs  the  legend  of  the  unicorn,  running  for  protection 
to  a maiden.  An  old  Bestiary  describes  how  the  unicorn, 
or  as  it  is  there  called,  the  “ monocerus,”  “ is  an  animal 
which  has  one  horn  on  its  head:  it  is  caught  by  means 
of  a virgin.”  The  unicorn  and  virgin,  with  a hunter 
in  pursuit,  is  quite  a favourite  bit  of  symbolism  in  the 
middle  ages. 


198  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Another  interesting  piece  of  German  embroidery  in 
South  Kensington  is  a table  cloth,  worked  on  heavy 
canvas,  in  heraldic  style:  long  decorative  inscriptions 
embellish  the  corners.  A liberal  translation  of  these 
verses  is  given  by  Dr.  Rock,  some  of  the  sentences  being 
quaint  and  interesting  to  quote.  Evidently  the  em- 
broideress  indulged  in  autobiography  in  the  following: 
“ And  she,  to  honour  the  esquire  her  husband,  wished 
to  adorn  and  increase  his  house  furniture,  and  there 
has  worked,  with  her  own  hand,  this  and  still  many 
other  pretty  cloths,  to  her  memory.”  And  in  another 
corner,  “ Now  follows  here  my  own  birthday.  When 
one  wrote  1565  my  mother’s  heart  was  gladdened  by 
my  first  cry.  In  the  year  1585  I gave  birth  my  self  to 
a daughter.  Her  name  is  Emilia  Catharina,  and  she 
has  been  a proper  and  praiseworthy  child.”  Then,  to  her 
children  the  following  address  is  directed:  “ Do  not 
forget  your  prayers  in  the  morning.  And  be  temperate 
in  your  pleasures.  And  make  yourselves  acquainted 
with  the  Word  of  God.  ...  I beseech  you  to  be  sincere 
in  all  matters.  That  will  make  you  great  and  glorious. 
Honour  everybody  according  to  his  station:  it  will 
make  you  honourably  known.  You,  my  truly  beloved 
sons,  beware  of  fiery  wines  ...  you,  my  truly  beloved 
daughters,  preserve  and  guard  your  honour,  and  reflect 
before  you  do  anything:  many  have  been  led  into  evil 
by  acting  first  and  thinking  afterwards.”  In  another 
compartment,  a lament  goes  up  in  which  she  deplores 
the  death  of  her  husband.  “ His  age  was  sixty  and  eight 


Embroideries 


199 


years,”  she  says.  “ The  dropsy  has  killed  him.  I,  his 
afflicted  Anna  Blickin  von  Liechtenperg  who  was  left 
behind,  have  related  it  with  my  hand  in  this  cloth,  that 
might  be  known  to  my  children  this  greater  sorrow  which 
God  has  sent  me.”  The  cloth  is  a naive  and  unusual 
record  of  German  home  life. 

Ecclesiastical  embroidery  began  in  the  fourth  century. 
In  earliest  days  the  work  was  enhanced  with  quantities 
of  gold  thread.  The  shroud  in  which  St.  Cuthbert’s 
body  was  wrapped  is  a mass  of  gold : a Latin  inscription 
on  the  vestments  in  which  the  body  was  clad  may  be 
thus  translated:  “ Queen  to  Alfred’s  son  and  successor, 
Edward  the  Elder,  was  one  Aelflaed,  who  caused  this 
stole  and  maniple  to  be  made  for  a gift  to  Fridestan 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Winchester,  a.  d.  905.”  The 
maniple  is  of  “ woven  gold,  with  spaces  left  vacant 
for  needlework  embroidery.”  Such  garments  for  burial 
were  not  uncommon;  but  they  have  as  a rule  perished 
from  their  long  residence  underground.  St.  Cuthbert’s 
vestments  are  splendid  examples  of  tenth  century  work 
in  England.  After  the  death  of  King  Edward  II.,  and 
his  wife  Aelflaed,  Bishop  Frithestan  also  having  passed 
away,  Athelstan,  as  King,  made  a pilgrimage  to  the  shrine 
of  St.  Cuthbert  and  bestowed  these  valuable  embroid- 
eries there.  They  were  removed  from  the  body  of  the 
saint  in  1827.  The  style  of  the  work  inclines  to  Byzan- 
tine. The  Saxon  embroideries  must  have  been  very 
decorative:  a robe  is  described  by  Aldhelme  in  709, 
as  “ of  a most  delicate  thread  of  purple,  adorned  with 


200  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


black  circles  and  peacocks.”  At  the  church  at  Croy- 
land  some  vestments  were  decorated  with  birds  of  gold 
cut  out  and  applique  and  at  Exeter  they  had  “ nothing 
about  them  but  true  needlework.” 

In  the  “ Liber  Eliensis,”  in  the  Muniment  room  at  Ely, 
is  an  account  of  a gift  to  the  church  by  Queen  Emma, 
the  wife  of  King  Knut,  who  “on  a certain  day  came 
to  Ely  in  a boat,  accompanied  by  his  wife  the  Queen 
Emma,  and  the  chief  nobles  of  his  kingdom.”  This 
royal  present  was  “ a purple  cloth  worked  with  gold 
and  set  with  jewels  for  St.  Awdry’s  shrine,”  and  the 
Monk  Thomas  assures  us  that  “ none  other  could  be 
found  in  the  kingdom  of  the  English  of  such  richness 
and  beauty  of  workmanship.” 

The  various  stitches  in  English  work  had  their  several 
names,  the  opus  plumarium,  or  straight  overlapping 
stitches,  resembling  the  feathers  of  a bird;  the  opus 
pluvarium,  or  cross  stitch,  and  many  others.  A great 
deal  of  work  was  accomplished  by  means  of  applique 
in  satin  and  silk,  and  sometimes  the  ground  was  painted, 
as  has  already  been  described  in  Italian  work.  In  the 
year  1246  Matthew  Paris  writes:  “About  this  time 
the  Lord  Pope,  Innocent  IV.,  having  observed  that  the 
ecclesiastical  ornaments  of  some  Englishmen,  such  as 
choristers’  copes  and  mitres,  wTere  embroidered  in  gold 
thread,  after  a very  desirable  fashion,  asked  where  these 
works  were  made,  and  received  in  answer,  4 England.’ 
Then,”  said  the  Pope,  “ England  is  surely  a garden 
of  delight  for  us;  it  is  truly  a never  failing  Spring,  and 


Embroideries 


201 


there  where  many  things  abound  much  may  be  extorted.” 
This  far  sighted  Pope,  with  his  semi-commercial  views, 
availed  himself  of  his  discovery. 

In  the  days  of  Anastatius,  ecclesiastical  garments 
were  spoken  of  by  name  according  to  the  motive  of  their 
designs:  for  instance,  the  “ peacock  garment,”  the 

“elephant  chasuble,”  and  the  “lion  cope.”  Fuller 
tells  of  the  use  of  a pall  as  an  ecclesiastical  vestment, 
remarking  tersely:  “It  is  made  up  of  lamb’s  wool  and 
superstition.” 

Mediaeval  embroiderers  in  England  got  into  certain 
habits  of  work,  so  that  there  are  some  designs  which 
are  almost  as  hall-marks  to  English  work;  the  Cherubim 
over  the  wheel  is  especially  characteristic,  as  is  also  the 
vase  of  lilies,  and  various  heraldic  devices  which  are  less 
frequently  found  in  the  embroidered  work  of  European 
peoples. 

The  Syon  Cope  is  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous 
example  of  the  mediaeval  embroiderer’s  art.  It  was 
made  by  nuns  about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
in  a convent  near  Coventry.  It  is  solid  stitchery  on  a 
canvas  ground,  “ wrought  about  with  divers  colours  ” 
on  green.  The  design  is  laid  out  in  a series  of  inter- 
lacing square  forms,  with  rounded  and  barbed  sides 
and  corners.  In  each  of  these  is  a figure  or  a scriptural 
scene.  The  orphreys,  or  straight  borders  which  go  down 
both  fronts  of  the  cope,  are  decorated  with  heraldic 
charges.  Much  of  the  embroidery  is  raised,  and  wrought 
in  the  stitch  known  as  Opus  Anglicanum.  The  effect 


202  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


was  produced  by  pressing  a heated  metal  knob  into  the 
work  at  such  points  as  were  to  be  raised.  The  real  em- 
broidery was  executed  on  a flat  surface,  and  then  bossed 
up  by  this  means  until  it  looked  like  bas-relief.  The 
stitches  in  every  part  run  in  zig-zags,  the  vestments, 
and  even  the  nimbi  about  the  heads,  are  all  executed 
with  the  stitches  slanting  in  one  direction,  from  the 
centre  of  the  cope  outward,  without  consideration  of 
the  positions  of  the  figures.  Each  face  is  worked  in 
circular  progression  outward  from  the  centre,  as  well. 
The  interlaces  are  of  crimson,  and  look  well  on  the  green 
ground.  The  wheeled  Cherubim  is  well  developed  in  the 
design  of  this  famous  cope,  and  is  a pleasing  decorative 
bit  of  archaic  ecclesiasticism.  In  the  central  design 
of  the  Crucifixion,  the  figure  of  the  Lord  is  rendered  in 
silver  on  a gold  ground.  The  anatomy  is  according  to 
the  rules  laid  down  by  an  old  sermonizer,  in  a book  en- 
titled “ The  Festival/ 7 wherein  it  is  stated  that  the 
body  of  Christ  was  “ drawn  on  the  cross  as  a skin  of 
parchment  on  a harrow,  so  that  all  his  bones  might  be 
told.”  With  such  instruction,  there  was  nothing  left 
for  the  mediaeval  embroiderers  but  to  render  the  figure 
with  as  much  realistic  emaciation  as  possible. 

The  heraldic  ornaments  on  the  Syon  Cope  are  especially 
interesting  to  all  students  of  this  graceful  art.  It  is  not 
our  purpose  here  to  make  much  allusion  to  this  aspect 
of  the  work,  but  it  is  of  general  interest  to  know  that  on 
the  orphreys,  the  devices  of  most  of  the  noble  families 
of  that  day  appear. 


DETAIL  OF  THE  SYON  COPE 


Embroideries 


203 


English  embroidery  fell  off  greatly  in  excellence  during 
the  Wars  of  the  Boses.  In  the  later  somewhat  degenerate 
raised  embroidery,  it  was  customary  to  represent  the 
hair  of  angels  by  little  tufted  curls  of  auburn  silk! 

Many  of  the  most  important  examples  of  ancient 
ecclesiastical  embroidery  are  in  South  Kensington 
Museum.  A pair  of  orphreys  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
of  German  work  (probably  made  at  Cologne),  shows 
a little  choir  of  angels  playing  on  musical  instruments. 
These  figures  are  cut  out  and  applied  on  crimson  silk, 
in  what  was  called  “ cut  work.”  This  differed  entirely 
from  what  modern  embroiderers  mean  by  cut  work,  as 
has  been  explained. 

The  Dalmatic  of  Charlemagne  is  given  by  Louis  Farcy 
to  the  twelfth  century.  He  calls  it  the  Dalmatic  of 
Leo  III.  But  Lady  Alford  claims  for  this  work  a greater 
antiquity.  Certainly,  as  one  studies  its  details,  one 
is  convinced  that  it  is  not  quite  a Gothic  work,  nor  yet 
is  it  Byzantine;  for  the  figures  have  all  the  grace  of 
Greek  work  prior  to  the  age  of  Byzantine  stiffness. 
It  is  embroidered  chiefly  in  gold,  on  a delicate  bluish 
satin  ground,  and  has  not  been  transferred,  although  it 
has  been  carefully  restored.  The  central  ornament  on 
the  front  is  a circular  composition,  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  figures  both  here  and  on  the  back  suggests  that 
Sir  Edward  Burne  Jones  must  have  made  a study  of 
this  magnificent  dalmatic,  from  which  it  would  seem 
that  much  of  his  inspiration  might  have  been  drawn. 
The  composition  is  singularly  restful  and  rhythmical. 


204  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  little  black  outlines  to  the  white  silk  faces,  and  to 
the  glowing  figures,  give  this  work  a peculiarly  decora- 
tive quality,  not  often  seen  in  other  embroideries  of  the 
period.  It  is  unique  and  one  of  the  most  valuable 
examples  of  its  art  in  the  world.  It  is  now  in  the  Treas- 
ury of  the  Vatican.  When  Charlemagne  sang  the  Gospel 
at  High  Mass  on  the  day  of  his  Coronation,  this  was  his 
vestment.  It  must  have  been  a strangely  gorgeous 
sight  when  Cola  di  Rienzi,  according  to  Lord  Lindsay, 
took  this  dalmatic,  and  placed  it  over  his  armour, 
and,  with  his  crown  and  truncheon,  ascended  to  the 
palace  of  the  Popes! 

A very  curious  Italian  piece  of  the  fourteenth  century 
is  an  altar  frontal,  on  which  the  subjects  introduced  are 
strange.  It  displays  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  IJbaldo, 
with  some  incidents  also  in  that  of  St.  Julian  Hospitaler. 
St.  Ubaldo  is  seen  forgiving  a mason  who,  having  run 
a wall  across  his  private  grounds,  had  knocked  the  saint 
down  for  remonstrating.  Another  scene  shows  the 
death  bed  of  the  saint,  and  the  conversion  of  a possessed 
man  at  the  foot  of  the  bed : a lady  is  throwing  her  arms 
above  her  head  in  astonishment  while  the  evil  spirit 
flies  from  its  victim  into  the  air.  Later,  the  saint  is  seen 
going  to  the  grave  in  a cart  drawn  by  oxen. 

The  peacock  was  symbolical  both  of  knightly  vigilance 
and  of  Christian  watchfulness.  An  old  Anglo-Norman, 
Osmont,  writes:  “ The  eye-speckled  feathers  should  warn 
a man  that  never  too  often  can  he  have  his  eyes  wide 
open,  and  gaze  inwardly  upon  his  own  heart.”  These 


DALMATIC  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 


i 


I 


Embroideries 


205 


dear  people  were  so  introspective  and  self-conscious, 
always  looking  for  trouble — in  their  own  motives, 
even  — that  no  doubt  many  good  impulses  perished 
unnoticed,  while  the  originator  was  chasing  mental 
phantoms  of  heresy  and  impurity. 

Painting  and  jewelry  were  sometimes  introduced 
in  connection  with  embroideries.  In  the  celebrated 
Cope  of  St.  John  Lateran,  the  faces  and  hands  of  the 
personages  are  rendered  in  painting;  but  this  method 
was  more  generally  adopted  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  when  sincerity  counted  for  less  than 
effect,  and  when  genuine  religious  fervour  for  giving 
one's  time  and  best  labour  to  the  Lord’s  service  no  longer 
dominated  the  workers.  Gold  thread  was  used  exten- 
sively in  English  work,  and  spangles  were  added  at  quite 
an  early  period,  as  well  as  actual  jewels  set  in  floral 
designs.  The  finest  work  was  accomplished  in  the  Gothic 
period,  before  the  Renaissance  came  with  its  aimless 
scrolls  to  detract  from  the  dignity  of  churchly  or- 
nament. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  winged  angels  have  often 
a degenerate  similitude  to  tightly  laced  coryphees,  who 
balance  themselves  upon  their  wheels  as  if  they  were 
performing  a vaudeville  turn.  They  are  not  as  dignified 
as  their  archaic  predecessors. 

Very  rich  funeral  palls  were  in  vogue  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  A description  of  Prince  Arthur's  burial  in 
1502  relates  how  numerous  palls  were  bestowed,  ap- 
parently much  as  friends  would  send  wreaths  or  im- 


206  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


portant  floral  tributes  to-day.  “ The  Lord  Powys 
went  to  the  Queere  Doore,”  writes  Leland,  “ where 
two  gentlemen  ushers  delivered  him  a riche  pall  of  cloth 
of  gould  of  tissue,  which  he  offered  to  the  corpse,  where 
two  Officers  of  the  Armes  received  it,  and  laid  it  along 
the  corpse.  The  Lord  Dudley  in  like  manner  offered 
a pall  . . . the  Lord  Grey  Ruthen  offered  another, 
and  every  each  of  the  three  Earls  offered  to  the  corpse 
three  palls  of  the  same  cloth  of  gould  ...  all  the  palls 
were  layd  crosse  over  the  corpse.” 

The  account  of  the  obsequies  of  Henry  VII.  also  con- 
tains mention  of  these  funeral  palls : the  Earls  and  Dukes 
came  in  procession,  from  the  Vestry,  with  “ certain  palls, 
which  everie  of  them  did  bring  solemnly  between  their 
hands  and  coming  in  order  one  before  another  as  they 
were  in  degree,  unto  the  said  herse,  they  kissed  their 
said  palls  . . . and  laid  them  upon  the  King’s  corpse.” 
At  Ann  of  Cleves’  burial  the  same  thing  was  repeated, 
in  1557.  Finally  these  rich  shimmering  hangings  came 
to  be  known  in  England  as  “ cloth  of  pall,”  whether 
they  were  used  for  funerals  or  coronations,  for  bridals 
or  pageants. 

The  London  City  Guilds  possessed  magnificent  palls; 
especially  well  known  is  that  of  the  Fishmongers,  with 
its  kneeling  angels  swinging  censers;  this  pall  is  fre- 
quently reproduced  in  works  on  embroidery.  It  is 
embroidered  magnificently  with  angels,  saints,  and 
strange  to  say,  mermaids.  The  peacock’s  wings  of  the 
angels  make  a most  decorative  feature  in  this  famous 


Embroideries 


207 


piece  of  old  embroidery.  The  Arms  of  the  Company 
are  also  emblazoned. 

French  embroiderers  are  known  by  name  in  many 
instances;  in  1299  allusion  was  made  to  “ Clement  le 
Brodeur,”  who  furnished  a cope  for  the  Count  of  Artois, 
arid  in  1316  a magnificent  set  of  hangings  was  made  for 
the  Queen,  by  one  Gautier  de  Poulleigny.  Nicolas 
Waquier  was  armourer  and  embroiderer  to  King  John 
in  1352.  Among  Court  workers  in  1384  were  Perrin  Gale, 
and  Henriet  Gautier.  In  the  “ Book  of  Rules  ” by 
Etienne  Boileau,  governing  the  “ Embroiderers  and 
embroideresses  of  the  City  of  Paris,”  one  of  the  chief 
laws  was  that  no  work  should  be  permitted  in  the  eve- 
ning, “ because  the  work  of  the  night  cannot  be  so  good 
or  so  satisfactory  as  that  accomplished  in  the  day.” 
When  one  remembers  the  facilities  for  evening  lighting 
in  the  middle  ages,  one  fully  appreciates  the  truth  of 
this  statement. 

Matthew  Paris,  in  his  Life  of  St.  Alban,  tells  of  an 
excellent  embroideress,  Christine,  Prioress  of  Margate, 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  several  names  occur.  Adam  de 
Bazinge  made,  in  1241,  by  order  of  Henry  III.  of  Eng- 
land, a cope  for  the  Bishop  of  Hereford.  Cunegonde, 
Abbess  of  Goss,  in  Styria,  accomplished  numerous 
important  works  in  that  period.  Also,  Henry  Ilf. 
employed  Jean  de  Sumercote  to  make  jewelled  robes  of 
state. 

On  a certain  thirteenth  century  chasuble  are  the  words 


208  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


“ Penne  fit  me  ” (Penne  made  me),  pointing  to  the 
existence  of  a needleworker  of  that  name.  Among  the 
names  of  the  fourteenth  century  are  those  of  Gautier  de 
Bruceles,  Renier  de  Treit,  Gautier  de  Poulogne,  and 
Jean  de  Laon,  while  Jean  Harent  of  Calais  is  recorded 
as  having  worked,  for  Mme.  d’ Artois,  in  1319,  a robe 
decorated  “ a bestelettes  et  a testes.”  These  names 
prove  that  the  art  had  been  taught  in  many  cities  and 
countries:  Ogier  de  Gant,  Jean  de  Savoie,  Etienne  le 
Hongre,  and  Roger  de  Varennes,  all  suggest  a cosmo- 
politan and  dispersed  number  of  workers,  who  finally 
all  appeared  in  Paris. 

Rene  d’ Anjou  had  in  his  employ  a worker  in  embroid- 
ery, named  Pierre  du  Villant.  This  artist  executed  a 
set  of  needlework  pieces  for  the  Cathedral  of  Angers,  of 
such  important  proportions  that  they  were  known 
collectively  as  “ La  Grande  Broderie.”  In  1462,  when 
they  were  put  in  place,  a special  mass  was  performed 
by  way  of  a dedication.  The  letter  which  accompanied 
this  princely  donation  contained  the  following  sen- 
tences: “We,  Rene,  by  the  Grace  of  God  . . . give 
...  to  this  church  . . . the  adornments  for  a chapell 
all  composd  of  golden  embroidery,  comprising  five 
pieces  ” (which  are  enumerated)  “ and  an  altar  cloth 
illustrated  with  scenes  from  the  Passion  of  Our  Saviour. 
. . . Given  in  our  castle  in  Angers,  the  fourth  day  of 
March,  1462.  Rene.” 

In  1479  another  altar  frontal  was  presented.  Two 
other  rich  chapels  were  endowed  by  Rene : one  was 


Embroideries 


209 


known  as  La  Chapelle  Joyeuse,  and  the  other  as  La 
Grande  Chapelle  des  Trepasses.  It  is  likely  that  the 
same  embroiderer  executed  the  pieces  of  all  these. 

A guild  of  embroiderers  was  in  standing  in  Seville  in 
1433,  where  Ordinances  were  enforced  to  protect  from 
fraud  and  otherwise  to  regulate  this  industry.  The 
same  laws  were  in  existence  in  Toledo.  One  of  the  finest 
and  largest  pieces  of  embroidery  in  Spain  is  known  as 
the  Tent  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  This  was  used  in 
1488,  when  certain  English  Ambassadors  were  enter- 
tained. The  following  is  their  description  of  its  use. 
“ After  the  tilting  was  over,  the  majesties  returned  to 
the  palace,  and  took  the  Ambassadors  with  them,  and 
entered  a large  room  . . . and  there  they  sat  under  a 
rich  cloth  of  state  of  crimson  velvet,  richly  embroidered, 
with  the  arms  of  Castile  and  Aragon.” 

A curious  effect  must  have  been  produced  by  a piece 
of  embroidery  described  in  the  inventory  of  Charles  V., 
as  “ two  little  pillows  with  savage  beasts  having  the 
heads  of  armed  men,  and  garnished  with  pearls.” 

After  the  Reformation  it  became  customary  to  use 
ecclesiastical  ornaments  for  domestic  purposes.  Heylin, 
in  his  “ History  of  the  Reformation,”  makes  mention  of 
many  “ private  men’s  parlours  ” which  “ were  hung  with 
altar  cloths,  and  their  tables  and  beds  covered  with 
copes  instead  of  carpetts  and  coverlids.” 

Katherine  of  Aragon,  while  the  wife  of  Henry  VIII., 
consoled  herself  in  her  unsatisfactory  life  by  needlework : 
it  is  related  that  she  and  her  ladies  “ occupied  themselves 


210  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


working  with  their  own  hands  something  wrought  in 
needlework,  costly  and  artificially,  which  she  intended 
to  the  honour  of  God  to  bestow  upon  some  churches.” 
Katherine  of  Aragon  was  such  a devoted  needlewoman, 
in  fact,  that  on  one  occasion  Burnet  records  that  she 
stepped  out  to  speak  to  two  ambassadors,  with  a skein 
of  silk  about  her  neck,  and  explained  that  she  had  been 
embroidering  with  her  ladies  when  they  were  announced. 
In  an  old  sonnet  she  is  thus  commemorated: 

“ She  to  the  eighth  king  Henry  married  was 
And  afterwards  divorced,  when  virtuously, 

Although  a queen,  yet  she  her  days  did  pass 
In  working  with  the  needle  curiously.” 

Queen  Elizabeth  was  also  a clever  embroiderer;  she 
worked  a book-cover  for  Katherine  Parr,  bearing  the 
initials  K.  P.,  and  it  is  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at 
Oxford. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  also  said  to  be  skilful  with  her 
needle;  in  fact  it  seems  to  have  been  the  consolation 
of  most  queens  in  their  restricted  existence  in  those 
centuries.  Dr.  Rock  considers  that  the  “ corporal  ” 
which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  had  bound  about  her  eyes 
at  the  time  of  her  execution,  was  in  reality  a piece  of  her 
own  needle-work,  probably  wrought  upon  fine  linen. 
Knight,  in  describing  the  scene  in  his  “ Picturesque 
History  of  England,”  says:  “ Then  the  maid  Kennedy 
took  a handkerchief  edged  with  gold,  in  which  the 
Eucharist  had  formerly  been  enclosed,  and  fastened  it 


Embroideries 


211 


over  her  eyes;  ” so  accounts  differ  and  traditions  allow 
considerable  scope  for  varied  preferred  interpretation. 

It  is  stated  that  Catherine  de  Medicis  was  fond  of 
needlework,  passing  her  evenings  embroidering  in  silk 
“ which  was  as  perfect  as  was  possible,”  says  Brantome. 

Anne  of  Brittany  instructed  three  hundred  of  the 
children  of  the  nobles  at  her  court,  in  the  use  of  the 
needle.  These  children  produced  several  tapestries, 
which  were  presented  by  the  queen  to  various  churches. 

The  volatile  Countess  of  Shrewsbury,  the  much 
married  “ Bess  of  Hardwick,”  was  a good  embroideress, 
who  worked,  probably,  in  company  with  the  Queen  of 
Scots  when  that  unfortunate  woman  was  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury.  One  of  these 
pieces  is  signed  E.  S.,  and  dated  1590. 

A form  of  intricate  pattern  embroidery  in  black  silk 
on  fine  linen  was  executed  in  Spain  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  was  known  as  “ black  work.”  Viscount 
Falkland  owns  some  important  specimens  of  this  curious 
work.  It  was  introduced  into  England  by  Katherine 
of  Aragon,  and  became  very  popular,  being  exceedingly 
suitable  and  serviceable  for  personal  adornment.  The 
black  was  often  relieved  by  gold  or  silver  thread. 

The  Petit  Point,  or  single  square  stitch  on  canvas, 
became  popular  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth. It  suggested  Gobelins  tapestry,  on  a small  scale, 
when  finished,  although  the  method  of  execution  is  quite 
different,  being  needlework  pure  and  simple. 

In  Elizabeth’s  time  was  incorporated  the  London 


212  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Company  of  Broderers,  which  flourished  until  about  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  when  there  is  a complaint  registered 
that  “ trade  was  so  much  decaj^ed  and  grown  out  of  use, 
that  a great  part  of  the  company,  for  want  of  employ- 
ment, -were  much  impoverished.” 

Raised  embroidery,  when  it  was  padded  with  cotton, 
was  called  Stump  Work.  This  was  made  extensively 
by  the  nuns  of  Little  Gidding  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  Decided  changes  and  develop- 
ments took  place  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  in  all  forms  of  embroidery,  but  these  are  not 
for  us  to  consider  at  present.  A study  of  historic  samples 
alone  is  most  tempting,  but  there  is  no  space  for  the 
intrusion  of  any  subject  much  later  than  the  Renais- 
sance. 


CHAPTER  VII 


SCULPTURE  IN  STONE 

(France  and  Italy) 

Sculpture  is  not  properly  speaking  the  “ plastic 
art,”  as  is  often  understood.  The  real  meaning  of 
sculpture  is  work  which  is  cut  into  form,  whereas  plastic 
art  is  work  that  is  moulded  or  cast  into  form.  Terra 
cotta,  which  is  afterwards  baked,  is  plastic;  and  yet 
becomes  hard;  thus  a Tanagra  figurine  is  an  example 
of  plastic  art,  while  a Florentine  marble  statuette  is 
a product  of  sculpture.  The  two  are  often  confounded. 
We  shall  allude  to  them  under  different  heads,  taking 
for  our  consideration  now  only  such  sculpture  as  is  the 
result  of  cutting  in  the  stone.  The  work  of  Luca  Della 
Robbia  will  not  be  treated  as  sculpture  in  this  book. 
Luca  Della  Robbia  is  a worker  in  plastic  art,  while  Adam 
Kraft,  hewing  directly  at  the  stone,  is  a sculptor. 

We  have  no  occasion  to  study  the  art  of  the  sculptor 
who  produces  actual  statues;  only  so  far  as  sculpture 
is  a companion  to  architecture,  and  a decorative  art, 
does  it  come  within  the  scope  of  the  arts  and  crafts. 
Figure  sculpture,  then,  is  only  considered  when  strictly 
of  a monumental  character. 

213 


214  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


In  attacking  such  a subject  as  sculpture  in  the  Middle 
Ages  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  indicate  the  general 
tendencies  in  different  countries.  But  there  are  certain 
defined  characteristics  an  observance  of  which  will 
make  clear  to  any  reader  various  fundamental  principles 
by  which  it  is  easy  to  determine  the  approximate  age  and 
style  of  works. 

In  the  first  place,  the  great  general  rule  of  treatment 
of  stone  in  the  North  and  in  the  South  is  to  be  mentioned. 
In  the  Northern  countries,  France,  Germany,  and 
England,  the  stone  which  was  employed  for  buildings 
and  their  decorations  was  obtainable  in  large  blocks 
and  masses;  it  was  what,  for  our  purposes,  we  will  call 
ordinary  stone,  and  could  be  used  in  the  solid;  therefore 
it  was  possible  for  carving  in  the  North  to  be  rendered 
as  deeply  and  as  roundly  as  the  sculptor  desired.  In 
Southern  countries,  however,  and  chiefly  in  Italy,  the 
stone  used  for  building  was  not  ordinary,  but  semi- 
precious stone.  Marble,  porphyry,  and  alabaster  were 
available;  and  the  use  of  such  material  led  to  a different 
ideal  in  architecture  and  decoration,  — that  of  incrusta- 
tion instead  of  solid  piling.  These  valuable  stones  of 
Italy  could  not  be  used,  generally  speaking,  in  vast 
blocks,  into  which  the  chisel  was  at  liberty  to  plough  as 
it  pleased;  when  a mass  of  marble  or  alabaster  was 
obtained,  the  sesthetic  soul  of  the  Italian  craftsman 
revolted  against  shutting  up  all  that  beauty  of  veining 
and  texture  in  the  confines  of  a solid  square,  of  which 
only  the  two  sides  should  ever  be  visible,  and  often 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


215 


only  one.  So  he  cut  his  precious  block  into  slices : made 
slabs  and  shallow  surfaces  of  it,  and  these  he  laid,  as  an 
outward  adornment  to  his  building,  upon  a substructure 
of  brick  or  rubble. 

It  is  easy  to  perceive,  then,  the  difference  of  the 
problem  of  the  sculptors  of  the  North  and  the  South. 
The  plain,  solid  Northern  building  was  capable  of 
unlimited  enrichment  by  carving;  this  carving,  when 
deeply  cut,  with  forcible  projection,  acted  as  a noble 
embellishment  in  which  the  principal  feature  was  a 
varied  play  of  light  and  shade;  the  stone  having  little 
charm  of  colour  or  texture  in  itself,  depended  for  its 
beauty  entirely  upon  its  bold  relief,  its  rounded  statuary, 
and  its  well  shaped  chiselled  ornament.  The  shallow  sur- 
face, already  beautiful,  both  in  colour  and  texture,  in  the 
Southern  building  material,  called  only  for  enrichment 
in  low  relief:  ornament  only  slightly  raised  from  the 
level  or  simply  perforating  the  thin  slab  of  glowing  stone 
on  which  it  was  used  was  the  more  usual  choice  of  the 
Italian  craftsman. 

This  statement  applies,  of  course,  only  to  general 
principles  of  the  art  of  sculpture ; there  is  some  flat  bas- 
relief  in  the  North,  and  some  rounded  sculpture  in  the 
South;  but  as  a rule  the  tendencies  are  as  they  have 
just  been  outlined. 

Another  difference  between  sculpture  in  the  North 
and  South  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  Italy  the  work  was 
individual,  as  a rule,  and  in  France  it  was  the  labour  of 
a Guild  or  company.  In  Italy  it  is  usually  known  who 


216  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


was  the  author  of  any  striking  piece  of  sculpture,  while  in 
France  it  is  the  exception  when  a work  is  signed,  or  the 
names  of  artisans  recorded.  In  Italy,  then,  each  piece 
was  made  more  with  a view  to  its  own  display,  than  as 
a part  of  a building,  while  in  France  statuary  was  re- 
garded as  an  integral  part  of  the  architecture,  and  rows 
of  figures  were  used  as  commonly  as  rows  of  columns 
in  Italy.  It  is  tragic  to  think  of  the  personal  skill  and 
brilliancy  of  all  these  great  French  craftsmen  being 
absorbed  in  one  general  reputation,  while  there  were 
undoubtedly  among  them  great  art  personalities  who 
would  have  stood  equally  with  the  Pisani  if  they  had 
been  recognized. 

A good  deal  of  flat  carving,  especially  in  the  interlace 
and  acanthus  of  Ravenna,  was  accomplished  by  com- 
mencing with  a series  of  drilled  holes,  which  were  after- 
wards channelled  into  each  other  and  formed  patterns. 
When  the  subsequent  finish  is  not  particularly  delicate, 
it  is  quite  easy  to  detect  these  symmetrical  holes,  but 
the  effect,  under  the  circumstances,  is  not  objectionable. 

The  processs  of  cutting  a bas-relief  was  generally  to 
outline  the  whole  with  an  incision,  and  then  cut  away 
the  background,  leaving  the  simple  elevated  flat  value, 
the  shape  of  the  proposed  design.  The  modelling  was 
then  added  by  degrees,  until  the  figure  looked  like  half  of 
a rounded  object.  While  it  is  often  unpractical  to  refer 
one’s  readers  to  examples  of  work  in  far  and  various 
countries,  and  advise  them  instantly  to  examine  them, 
it  is  frequently  possible  to  call  attention  to  well-pro- 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


217 


CARVED  CAPITAL  FROM  RAVENNA 


218  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


duced  plates  in  certain  modern  art  books  which  are  in 
nearly  every  public  library.  To  understand  thor- 
oughly the  use  of  the  drill  in  flat  sculpture,  I wish  my 
readers  would  refer  to  Fig.  121  in  Mr.  Russell  Sturgis’s 
“ Artist’s  Way  of  Working,”  Vol.  II. 

In  a quaint  treatise  on  Belles  Lettres  in  France  nearly 
two  centuries  ago,  by  Carlencas,  the  writer  says:  “ It 
is  to  no  great  purpose  to  speak  of  the  Gothick  sculptures : 
for  everybody  knows  that  they  are  the  works  of  a rude 
art,  formed  in  spite  of  nature  and  rules : sad  productions 
of  barbrous  and  dull  spirits,  which  disfigure  our  old 
churches.”  Fie  on  a Frenchman  who  could  so  express 
himself!  We  recall  the  story  of  how  Viollet  le  Due  made 
the  people  of  Paris  appreciate  the  wonderful  carvings  on 
Notre  Dame.  All  the  rage  in  France  was  for  Greek  and 
Roman  remains,  and  the  people  persisted  in  their  adora- 
tion of  the  antique,  but  would  not  deign  to  look  nearer 
home,  at  their  great  mediaeval  works  of  art.  So  the 
architect  had  plaster  casts  made  of  the  principal  figures 
on  the  cathedral,  and  these  were  treated  so  as  to  look 
like  ancient  marble  statues;  he  then  opened  an  exhibi- 
tion, purporting  to  show  new  discoveries  and  excava- 
tions among  antiques.  The  exhibition  was  thronged, 
and  every  one  was  deeply  interested,  expressing  the 
greatest  admiration  for  the  marvellously  expressive 
sculptures.  Viollet  le  Due  then  admitted  what  he  had 
done,  and  confessing  that  these  treasures  were  to  be 
found  in  their  native  city,  advised  them  to  pay  more 
attention  to  the  beauties  of  Gothic  art  in  Paris. 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


219 


We  will  not  enter  into  a discussion  of  the  relative  merits 
of  Northern  and  Southern  art;  whether  the  great  re- 
vival really  originated  in  France  or  Italy;  but  this  is 
certain:  Nicolo  Pisano  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  while  the  great  sculptures  of  Notre 
Dame,  Paris,  and  those  of  Chartres,  were  executed  half 
a century  earlier. 

But  prior  to  either  were  the  Byzantine  and  Ro- 
manesque sculptures  in  Italy  and  Southern  France. 
Our  attention  must  first  be  turned  to  them.  Charles 
Eliot  Norton’s  definition  of  this  word  Romanesque  is 
as  satisfactory  as  any  that  could  be  instanced:  “ It  very 
nearly  corresponds  to  the  term  of  Romance  as  applied 
to  language.  It  signifies  the  derivation  of  the  main  ele- 
ments, both  in  plan  and  construction,  from  the  works  of 
the  later  Roman  Empire.  But  Romanesque  architecture” 
(and  this  applies  equally  to  sculpture)  “ was  not,  as  it  has 
been  called,  a corrupted  imitation  of  the  Roman  archi- 
tecture, any  more  than  the  Provengal  or  the  Italian  lan- 
guage was  a corrupted  imitation  of  the  Latin.  It  was  a 
new  thing,  the  slowly  matured  product  of  a long  period 
of  many  influences.” 

All  mediaeval  carving  was  subordinate  to  architecture, 
therefore  every  piece  of  carving  was  designed  with  a view 
to  being  suitable  to  appear  in  some  special  place.  The 
most  striking  difference  between  mediaeval  and  later 
sculpture  is  that  the  latter  is  designed  as  a thing  apart, 
an  object  to  be  stood  anywhere  to  be  admired  for  its 
intrinsic  merit,  instead  of  being  a functional  com- 


220  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


ponent  in  a general  scheme  for  beautifying  a given 
building. 

The  use  of  the  interlace  in  all  primitive  arts  is  very 
interesting.  It  undoubtedly  began  in  an  unconscious 
imitation  of  local  architecture.  For  instance,  in  the 
British  Isles,  the  building  in  earliest  times  was  with 
wattles:  practically  walls  of  basket  work.  William 
of  Malmsbury  says  that  Glastonbury  was  “ a mean 
structure  of  wattle  work,”  while  of  the  Monastery  of 
Iona,  it  is  related  that  in  563,  Columba  11  sent  forth  his 
monks  to  gather  twigs  to  build  his  hospice.”  British 
baskets  were  famous  even  so  far  away  as  Rome.  So  the 
first  idea  of  ornament  was  to  copy  the  interlacing  forms. 
The  same  idea  was  worked  out  synchronously  in  metal 
work,  and  in  illuminated  books.  Carving  in  stone, 
wood,  and  ivory,  show  the  same  influence. 

Debased  Roman  sculptural  forms  were  used  in  Italy 
during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Then  Justinian 
introduced  the  Byzantine  which  was  grafted  upon  the 
Roman,  producing  a characteristic  and  fascinating 
though  barbaric  combination.  This  was  the  Romanesque, 
or  Romano-Byzantine,  in  the  North  of  Italy  generally 
being  recognized  as  the  Lombard  style.  The  sculptures 
of  this  period,  from  the  fifth  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
are  blunt  and  heavy,  but  full  of  quaint  expression  due 
to  the  elemental  and  immature  conditions  of  the  art. 
Many  of  the  old  Byzantine  carvings  are  to  be  seen  in 
Italy. 

The  Lombards,  when  invading  Northern  Italy, 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


221 


brought  with  them  a mighty  smith,  Paul  the  Deacon, 
who  had  much  skill  with  the  hammer.  When  these 
rude  Norsemen  found  themselves  among  the  aesthetic 
treasures  of  Byzantium,  and  saw  the  fair  Italian  marbles, 
and  the  stately  work  of  Theodoric  and  Justinian,  they 
were  inflamed  with  zeal  for  artistic  expression,  and 
began  to  hew  and  carve  rough  but  spirited  forms  out 
of  the  Pisan  and  Carrara  stones.  The  animals  which 
they  sculptured  were,  as  Ruskin  has  said,  “ all  alive: 
hungry  and  fierce,  wild,  with  a life-like  spring.”  The 
Byzantine  work  was  quiescent:  the  designs  formal, 
decent,  and  monumental.  But  the  Lombards  threw 
into  their  work  their  own  restless  energy,  and  some  of 
their  cruelty  and  relentlessness.  Queen  Theodolinda, 
in  her  palace  at  Monza,  encouraged  the  arts;  it  was 
because  of  her  appreciative  comprehension  of  such 
things  that  St.  Gregory  sent  her  the  famous  Iron  Crown, 
of  which  a description  has  been  given,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  baptism  of  her  son.  Under  the  influence  of  these 
subsequently  civilized  barbarians  many  of  the  greatest 
specimens  of  carving  in  North  Italy  came  into  being. 
The  most  delightful  little  stumpy  saints  and  sacred 
emblems  may  be  found  on  the  fagade  of  St.  Michele  at 
Pavia,  and  also  at  Lucca,  and  on  the  Baptistery  at 
Parma,  The  sculptor  who  produced  these  works  at 
Parma  was  a very  interesting  craftsman,  named  Ante- 
lami.  His  Descent  from  the  Cross  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  pieces  of  early  sculpture  before  the  Pisani. 
He  lived  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  figures  are  of 


222  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Byzantine  proportions  and  forms,  but  have  a good 
deal  of  grace  and  suggestion  of  movement. 

Among  the  early  names  known  in  Italy  is  that  of 
Magister  Orso,  of  Verona.  Another,  in  the  ninth  century, 
was  Magister  Pacifico,  and  in  the  twelfth  there  came 
Guglielmus,  who  carved  the  charming  naive  wild 
hunting  scenes  on  the  portal  of  St.  Zeno  of  Verona. 
These  reliefs  represent  Theodoric  on  horseback,  followed 
by  an  able  company  of  men  and  horses  which,  according 
to  legend,  were  supplied  by  the  infernal  powers.  The 
eyes  of  these  fugitives  have  much  expression,  being 
rendered  with  a drill,  and  standing  out  in  the  design  as 
little  black  holes  — fierce  and  effective. 

There  is  a fine  round  window  at  St.  Zeno  at  Verona, 
designed  and  executed  by  one  Briolottus,  which,  in- 
tended to  represent  the  Wheel  of  Fortune,  is  decorated 
all  over  with  little  clinging  figures,  some  falling  and  some 
climbing,  and  has  the  motto:  “ I elevate  some  mortals 
and  depose  others:  I give  good  or  evil  to  all:  I clothe 
the  naked  and  strip  the  clothed:  in  me  if  any  one  trust 
he  will  be  turned  to  derision.” 

Perhaps  the  most  wonderful  carvings  on  the  church 
of  St.  Zeno  at  Verona  are  over  the  arched  entrance  to 
the  crypt.  These,  being  chiefly  grotesque  animal  forms, 
are  signed  by  Adaminus.  Among  the  humourous  little 
conceits  is  a couple  of  strutting  cocks  carrying  between 
them  a dead  fox  slung  on  a rod.  Ruskin  has  character- 
ized the  carvings  at  Verona,  especially  those  on  the  porch, 
as  being  among  the  best  examples  of  the  true  function 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


223 


of  flat  decorative  carving  in  stone.  He  says:  “ The 
primary  condition  is  that  the  mass  shall  be  beautifully 
rounded,  and  disposed  with  due  discretion  and  order; 
. . . sculpture  is  essentially  the  production  of  a pleasant 
bossiness  or  roundness  of  surface.  The  pleasantness  of 
that  bossy  condition  to  the  eye  is  irrespective  of  imita- 
tion on  one  side,  and  of  structure  on  the  other.”  The 
more  one  considers  this  statement,  the  more  he  is  con- 
vinced of  its  comprehensiveness.  If  the  lights  and 
shadows  fall  pleasantly,  how  little  one  stops  to  inquire, 
“ What  is  the  subject?  Do  I consider  that  horse  well 
proportioned,  or  do  I not?  Is  that  woman  in  good  draw- 
ing? ” Effectiveness  is  almost  independent  of  detail, 
except  as  that  detail  affects  the  law  of  proportion. 
There  are  varying  degrees  of  relief:  from  flat  (where 
the  ornament  is  hardly  more  than  incised,  and  the  back- 
ground planed  away)  to  a practically  solid  round  figure 
cut  almost  entirely  free  of  its  ground. 

In  Venice,  until  the  revival  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  Greek  Byzantine  influence  was  marked.  There  is 
no  more  complete  storehouse  of  the  art  of  the  East 
adapted  to  mediaeval  conditions  than  the  Church  of 
St.  Mark’s.  If  space  permitted,  nothing  could  be  more 
delightful  than  to  examine  in  detail  these  marvellous 
capitals  and  archivolts  which  Ruskin  has  so  lovingly 
immortalized  for  English  readers.  Of  all  decorative 
sculpture  there  is  none  more  satisfying  from  the  orna- 
mental point  of  view  than  the  Byzantine  interlace  and 
vine  forms  so  usual  in  Venice.  The  only  place  where 


224  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


these  may  be  seen  to  even  greater  advantage  is  Ravenna. 
The  pierced  marble  screens  and  capitals,  with  their 
restful  combinations  of  interlacing  bands  and  delicate 
foliate  forms,  are  nowhere  surpassed.  The  use  of  the 
acanthus  leaf  conventionalized  in  a strictly  primitive 
fashion  characterizes  most  of  the  Byzantine  work  in 
Italy.  With  these  are  combined  delightful  stiff  peacocks, 
and  curious  bunches  of  grapes,  rosettes,  and  animal 
forms  of  quaint  grotesqueness.  Such  work  exemplifies 
specially  what  has  been  said  regarding  the  use  of  flat 
thin  slabs  for  sculptural  purposes  in  the  South  of  Europe. 
Nearly  all  these  carvings  are  executed  in  fine  marbles 
and  alabasters.  The  chief  works  of  this  period  in  the 
round  are  lions  and  gryphons  supporting  columns  as  at 
Ancona  and  Perugia,  and  many  other  Italian  cities. 

In  Rome  there  were  several  sculptors  of  the  name  of 
Peter.  One  of  them,  Peter  Amabilis,  worked  about 
1197;  and  another,  Peter  le  Orfever,  went  to  England 
and  worked  on  the  tomb  of  Edward  the  Confessor  at 
Westminster. 

In  Bologna  is  an  interesting  crucifix  probably  carved 
in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  Christ's  figure  is  upon 
the  cross  and  that  of  his  mother  stands  near.  The 
sculptor  was  Petrus  Albericus.  On  the  cross  is  an  in- 
scription in  the  form  of  a dialogue:  “ My  son?  " “ What, 
Mother?  " “ Are  you  God?  ” “ I am."  “ Why  do  you 
hang  on  the  cross?  " “ That  Mankind  may  not  perish." 

The  Masters  of  Stone  and  Wood  were  among  the  early 
Guilds  and  Corporations  of  Florence.  Charlemagne 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


225 


patronized  this  industry  and  helped  to  develop  it.  Of 
craftsmen  in  these  two  branches  exclusive  of  master 
builders,  and  recognized  artists,  there  were,  in  1299, 
about  a hundred  and  forty-six  members  of  the  Guild. 

Italy  was  backward  for  a good  while  in  the  progress 
of  art,  for  while  great  activities  were  going  on  in  the 
North,  the  Doge  of  Venice  in  976  was  obliged  to  import 
artists  from  Constantinople  to  decorate  St.  Mark’s 
church. 

The  tombs  of  this  early  period  in  Italy,  as  elsewhere, 
are  significant  and  beautiful.  Recumbent  figures,  with 
their  hands  devoutly  pressed  together,  are  usually  seen, 
lying  sometimes  on  couches  and  sometimes  under 
architectural  canopies. 

The  first  great  original  Italian  sculptor  of  the  Renais- 
sance was  Nicola  Pisano.  He  lived  through  almost  the 
whole  of  the  thirteenth  century,  being  born  about  1204, 
and  dying  in  1278.  What  were  the  early  influences  of 
Nicola  Pisano,  that  helped  to  make  him  so  much  more 
more  modern,  more  truly  classic,  than  any  of  his  age? 
In  the  first  place,  he  was  born  at  the  moment  when 
interest  in  ancient  art  was  beginning  to  awaken;  the 
early  thirteenth  century.  In  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa 
may  be  seen  two  of  the  most  potent  factors  in  his 
aesthetic  education,  the  Greek  sarcophagus  on  which 
was  carved  the  Hunting  of  Meleager,  and  the  Greek 
urn  with  Bacchic  figures  wreathing  it  in  classic  symmetry. 
With  his  mind  tuned  to  the  beautiful,  the  boy  Nicola 
gazed  at  the  work  of  genuine  pagan  Greek  artists, 


226  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


who  knew  the  sinuousness  of  the  human  form  and  the 
joy  of  living  with  no  thought  of  the  morrow.  These 
joyous  pagan  elements,  grafted  on  solemn  religious 
surroundings  and  influences,  combined  to  produce  his 
peculiar  genius.  Basing  his  early  endeavours  on  these 
specimens  of  genuine  classical  Greek  art,  there  resulted 
his  wonderful  pulpits  at  Pisa  and  Siena,  and  his  match- 
lessly graceful  little  Madonnas  denote  the  Hellenistic 
sentiment  for  beauty.  His  work  was  a marked  departure 
from  the  Byzantine  and  Romanesque  work  which  con- 
stituted Italian  sculpture  up  to  that  period.  An  exam- 
ination of  his  designs  and  methods  proves  his  immense 
originality.  By  profession  he  was  an  architect.  Of  his 
pulpit  in  Siena  Charles  Eliot  Norton  speaks  with  much 
appreciation.  Alluding  to  the  lions  used  as  bases  to  its 
columns,  he  says:  “ These  are  the  first  realistic  repre- 
sentations of  living  animals  which  the  mediaeval  revival 
of  art  has  produced;  and  in  vivacity  and  energy  of 
rendering,  and  in  the  thoroughly  artistic  treatment  of 
leonine  spirit  and  form,  they  have  never  been  surpassed.” 
It  is  usually  claimed  that  one  may  learn  much  of  the 
rise  of  Gothic  sculpture  by  studying  the  models  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum.  In  a foot-note  to  such  a 
statement  in  a book  edited  by  Ruskin,  the  indignant 
editor  has  observed,  “ You  cannot  do  anything  of  the 
kind.  Pisan  sculpture  can  only  be  studied  in  the  original 
marble:  half  its  virtue  is  in  the  chiselling!”  Nicola 
was  assisted  in  the  work  on  his  shrine  of  St.  Dominic 
at  Bologna  by  one  Fra  Guglielmo  Agnelli,  a monk  of 


PULPIT 


OF 


NICOLA 


PISANO, 


PISA 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


227 


a very  pious  turn,  who,  nevertheless,  committed  a 
curious  theft,  which  was  never  discovered  until  his  own 
death-bed  confession.  He  absconded  with  a bone  of  St. 
Dominic,  which  he  kept  for  private  devotions  all  his 
subsequent  life!  An  old  chronicler  says,  naively:  “ If 
piety  can  absolve  from  theft,  Fra  Guglielmo  is  to  be 
praised,  though  never  to  be  imitated.” 

Andrea  Pisano  was  Nicola’s  greatest  scholar,  though 
not  his  son.  He  took  the  name  of  his  master  after  the 
mediaeval  custom.  His  work  was  largely  in  bronze,  and 
the  earlier  gates  of  the  Baptistery  in  Florence  are  by 
him.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  later  gates  by 
Ghiberti,  when  speaking  of  bronze.  Andrea  had  the 
honour  to  teach  the  celebrated  Orcagna,  — more  painter 
than  sculptor,  — whose  most  noted  work  in  this  line  was 
the  Tabernacle  at  Or  San  Michele.  Among  the  loveliest 
of  the  figures  sculptured  by  the  Pisani  are  the  angels 
standing  in  a group,  blowing  trumpets,  on  the  pulpit  at 
Pistoja,  the  work  of  Giovanni.  Among  Nicola’s  pupils 
were  his  son  Giovanni,  Donatello,  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  and 
Lorenzo  Maitani,  who  executed  the  delightful  sculptures 
on  the  fagade  of  the  Cathedral  of  Orvieto,  — perhaps 
the  most  interesting  set  of  bas-reliefs  in  detail  of  the 
Early  Renaissance,  although  in  general  symmetrical 
“ bossiness  ” of  effect,  so  much  approved  by  Ruskin, 
they  are  very  uneven.  In  this  respect  they  come  rather 
under  the  head  of  realistic  than  of  decorative  art. 

Lorenzo  Maitani  was  a genuine  leader  of  his  guild  of 
craftsmen,  and  superintended  the  large  body  of  architects 


228  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


who  worked  at  Orvieto,  stone  masons,  mosaicists,  bronze 
founders,  painters,  and  minor  workmen.  He  lived  until 
1330,  and  practically  devoted  his  life  to  Orvieto.  It  is 
uncertain  whether  any  of  the  Pisani  were  employed  in 
any  capacity,  although  for  a time  it  was  popularly  sup- 
posed that  the  four  piers  on  the  fagade  were  their  work. 
An  iconographic  description  of  these  sculptures  would 
occupy  too  much  time  here,  but  one  or  two  features  of 
special  interest  should  be  noted : the  little  portrait  relief 
of  the  master  Maitani  himself  occurs  on  the  fourth  pier, 
among  the  Elect  in  heaven,  wearing  his  workman’s  cap 
and  carrying  his  architect’s  square.  Only  his  head 
and  shoulders  can  be  seen  at  the  extreme  left  of  the 
second  tier  of  sculptures.  In  accordance  with  an  early 
tradition,  that  Virgil  was  in  some  wise  a prophet,  and 
that  he  had  foretold  the  coming  of  Christ,  he  is  here 
introduced,  on  the  second  pier,  near  the  base,  crowned 
with  laurel.  The  incident  of  the  cutting  off  of  the 
servant’s  ear,  b}^  Peter,  is  positively  entertaining.  Peter 
is  sawing  away  industriously  at  the  offending  member; 
a fisherman  ought  to  understand  a more  deft  use  of  the 
knife!  In  the  scenes  of  the  Creation,  depicted  on  the 
first  pier,  Maitani  has  proved  himself  a real  nature 
lover  in  the  tender  way  he  has  demonstrated  the  joy 
of  the  birds  at  finding  the  use  of  their  wings. 

The  earliest  sculptures  in  France  were  very  rude,  — 
it  was  rather  a process  than  an  art  to  decorate  a building 
with  carvings  as  the  Gauls  did!  But  the  latent  race 
talent  was  there;  as  soon  as  the  Romanesque  and 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


229 


Byzantine  influences  were  felt,  a definite  school  of 
sculpture  was  formed  in  France;  almost  at  once  they 
seized  on  the  best  elements  of  the  craft  and  abandoned 
the  worthless,  and  the  great  note  of  a national  art  was 
struck  in  the  figures  at  Chartres,  Paris,  Rheims,  and 
other  cathedrals  of  the  He  de  France. 

Prior  to  this  flowering  of  art  in  Northern  France, 
the  churches  of  the  South  of  France  developed  a charm- 
ing Romanesque  of  their  own,  a little  different  from 
that  in  Italy.  A monk  named  Tutilon,  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Gall,  was  among  the  most  famous  sculptors  of 
the  Romanesque  period.  Another  name  is  that  of 
Hughes,  Abbot  of  Montier-en-Der.  At  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century  one  Morard,  under  the  patronage  of  King 
Robert,  built  and  ornamented  the  Church  of  St.  Germain 
des  Pres,  Paris,  while  Guillaume,  an  Abbot  at  Dijon, 
was  at  the  head  of  the  works  of  forty  monasteries. 
Guillaume  probably  had  almost  as  wide  an  influence 
upon  French  art  as  St.  Bernward  had  on  the  German,  or 
Nicola  Pisano  on  that  of  Italy.  In  Metz  were  two 
noted  architects,  Adelard  and  Gontran,  who  superin- 
tended the  building  of  fourteen  churches,  and  an  early 
chronicler  says  that  the  expense  was  so  great  that  “ the 
imperial  treasury  would  scarce  have  sufficed  for  it.” 

At  Arles  are  two  of  the  most  famous  monuments  of 
Romanesque  art,  the  porches  of  St.  Trophime,  and  of 
St.  Gilles.  The  latter  exhibits  almost  classical  feeling 
and  influence;  the  former  is  much  blunter  and  more 
Byzantine;  both  are  highly  interesting  for  purposes 


230  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


of  study,  being  elaborately  ornamented  with  figure 
sculptures  and  other  decorative  motives. 

Abbot  Suger,  the  art-craftsman  par  excellence  of  the 
lie  de  France,  was  the  sculptor  in  chief  of  St.  Denis  from 
1137  to  1180.  This  magnificent  fagade  is  harmonious  in 
its  treatment,  betokening  plainly  that  one  brain  con- 
ceived and  carried  out  the  plan.  We  have  not  the 
names  of  the  minor  architects  and  sculptors  who  were 
employed,  but  doubtless  they  were  the  scholars  and 
followers  of  Suger,  and  rendered  work  in  a similar 
manner. 

There  are  some  names  which  have  been  handed  down 
from  early  times  in  Normandy:  one  Otho,  another 
Gamier,  and  a third,  Anquetil,  while  a crucifix  carved 
by  Auquilinus  of  Moissac  was  popularly  believed  to  have 
been  created  by  divine  means.  If  one  will  compare  the 
statues  of  St.  Trophime  of  Arles  with  those  at  St.  Denis, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  latter  are  better  rounded,  those 
at  St.  Trophime  being  coarsely  blocked  out;  although  at 
first  glance  one  would  say  that  there  was  little  to  choose 
between  them. 

The  old  font  at  Amiens  is  very  ancient,  older  than  the 
church.  It  is  seven  feet  long,  and  stands  on  short 
square  piers:  it  resembles  a stone  coffin,  and  was  ap- 
parently so  made  that  a grown  person  might  be  baptized 
by  immersion,  by  lying  at  full  length.  Angels  holding 
scrolls  are  carved  at  its  four  corners,  otherwise  it  is  very 
plain.  There  is  an  ancient  Byzantine  crucifix  at  Amiens, 
on  which  the  figure  of  Our  Lord  is  fully  draped,  and  on  his 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


231 


head  is  a royal  crown  instead  of  thorns.  The  figure,  too, 
is  erect,  as  if  to  invite  homage  by  its  outstretched  arms, 
instead  of  suggesting  that  the  arms  had  to  bear  the 
weight  of  the  body.  Indeed,  it  is  a Christ  triumphant 
and  regnant  though  crucified  — a very  unusual  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  brought 
from  the  East,  in  all  probability,  by  a returning  warrior 
from  the  Crusades. 

The  foundation  of  Chartres  was  very  early:  the  first 
Bishop  St.  Aventin  occupied  his  see  as  early  as  200  a.  d. 
The  early  Gothic  type  in  figure  sculpture  is  always 
characterized  by  a few  features  in  common,  though 
different  districts  produced  varying  forms  and  facial 
expressions.  The  figures  are  always  narrow,  and  much 
elongated,  from  a monumental  sentiment  which  governed 
the  design  of  the  period.  The  influence  of  the  Caryatid 
may  have  remained  in  the  consciousness  of  later  artists, 
leading  them  to  make  their  figures  conform  so  far  as 
expedient  to  the  proportions  of  the  columns  which  stood 
behind  them  and  supported  them.  In  any  case,  it  was 
considered  an  indispensable  condition  that  these  pro- 
portions should  be  maintained,  and  has  come  to  be 
regarded  as  an  architectural  necessity.  As  soon  as 
sculptors  began  to  consider  their  figures  as  realistic 
representations  of  human  beings  instead  of  ornamental 
motives  in  their  buildings,  the  art  declined,  and  poor 
results  followed. 

The  west  porch  of  Chartres  dates  from  the  twelfth 
century.  The  church  was  injured  by  fire  in  1194.  In 


232  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


1226  certain  restorations  were  made,  and  an  old  chronicle 
says  that  at  that  time  it  was  quite  fire-proof,  remarking: 
“ It  has  nothing  to  fear  from  any  earthly  fire  from  this 
time  to  the  day  of  Judgment,  and  will  save  from  fires 
eternal  the  many  Christians  who  by  their  alms  have 
helped  in  its  rebuilding.”  The  whole  edifice  was  conse- 
crated by  St.  Louis  on  Oct.  17,  1260.  The  King  gave 
the  north  porch,  and  several  of  the  windows,  and  the 
whole  royal  family  was  present  at  this  impressive 
function. 

About  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  it  became 
customary  to  carve  effigies  on  tombstones,  at  first 
simple  figures  in  low  relief  lying  on  flat  slabs:  this  idea 
being  soon  elaborated,  however,  into  canopied  tombs, 
which  grew  year  by  year  more  ornate,  until  Gothic 
structures  enriched  with  finials  and  crockets  began  to 
be  erected  in  churches  to  such  an  extent  that  the  interior 
of  the  edifice  was  quite  filled  with  these  dignified  little 
buildings.  In  many  instances  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
obtain  any  view  of  the  sanctuary  except  looking  directly 
down  the  central  aisle;  the  whole  ambulatory  is  often 
one  continuous  succession  of  exquisite  sepulchral 
monuments. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfying  monument  of  French 
Gothic  style  is  the  tomb  of  the  elder  son  of  St.  Louis 
at  St.  Denis.  The  majesty  of  the  recumbent  figure  is 
striking,  but  the  little  procession  of  mourners  about  the 
main  body  of  the  tomb  is  absolutely  unrivalled  in  art 
of  this  character.  The  device  of  little  weeping  figures 


TOMB  OF  THE  SON  OF  ST.  LOUIS,  ST.  DENIS 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


233 


surrounding  the  lower  part  of  a tomb  is  also  carried  out 
in  an  exquisite  way  on  the  tomb  of  Aymer  de  Valence 
in  Westminster. 

Some  interesting  saints  are  carved  on  the  north  portal 
of  Amiens,  among  others,  St.  Ulpha,  a virgin  who  is 
chiefly  renowned  for  having  lived  in  a chalk  cave  near 
Amiens,  where  she  was  greatly  annoyed  by  frogs. 
Undaunted,  she  prayed  so  lustily  and  industriously,  that 
she  finally  succeeded  in  silencing  them ! 

The  thirteenth  century  revival  in  France  was  really 
a new  birth;  almost  more  than  a Renaissance.  It  is  a 
question  among  archaeologists  if  France  was  not  really 
more  original  and  more  brilliant  than  Italy  in  this 
respect.  A glance  at  such  figures  as  the  Virgin  from  the 
Gilded  Portal  at  Amiens,  and  another  Virgin  from  the 
same  cathedral,  will  show  the  change  which  came  over 
the  spirit  of  art  in  that  one  city  during  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  figure  on  the  right  door  of  the  western 
fagade  is  a work  of  the  early  part  of  the  century.  She 
is  grave  and  dignified  in  bearing,  her  hand  extended  in 
favour,  while  the  Child  gives  the  blessing  in  calm  maj- 
esty. This  figure  has  the  spirit  of  a goddess  receiving 
homage,  and  bestowing  grace:  it  is  conventional  and 
monumental.  The  Virgin  from  the  Gilded  Portal  is  of 
a later  generation.  Her  attention  is  given  to  the  Child, 
and  her  aspect  is  human  and  spirited,  — almost  merry. 
It  may  be  said  to  be  less  religious  than  the  other  statue, 
but  it  is  filled  with  more  modern  grace  and  charm,  and 
glorifies  the  idea  of  happy  maternity:  every  angle  and 


234  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


fold  of  the  drapery  is  full  of  life  and  action  without 
being  over  realistic.  There  is  much  in  common  between 
this  pleasing  statue  and  the  Virgins  of  the  Pisani  in  Italy. 

Professor  Moore  considers  the  statue  of  the  Virgin 
on  the  Portal  of  the  Virgin  at  the  west  end  of  Notre 
Dame  in  Paris  as  about  the  best  example  of  Gothic  figure 
sculpture  in  France.  He  says  further  that  the  finest 
statues  in  portals  of  any  age  are  those  of  the  north 
porch  at  Paris.  The  Virgin  here  is  marvellously  fine  also. 
It  combines  the  dignity  and  monumental  qualities  of 
the  first  of  the  Virgins  at  Amiens,  with  the  living  buoy- 
ancy of  the  Virgin  on  the  Gilded  Portal.  It  is  the  clear 
result  of  a study  of  nature  grafted  on  Byzantine  tra- 
ditions. It  dates  from  1250. 

While  sculpture  was  practised  chiefly  by  monastic 
artists,  it  retained  the  archaic  and  traditional  elements. 
When  trained  carvers  from  secular  life  began  to  take  the 
chisel,  the  spirit  of  the  world  entered  in.  For  a time 
this  was  a marked  improvement:  later  the  pendulum 
swung  too  far,  and  decadence  set  in. 

A favourite  device  on  carved  tympana  above  portals 
was  the  Last  Judgment.  Michael  with  the  scales, 
engaged  in  weighing  souls,  was  the  tall  central  figure,  and 
the  two  depressed  saucers  of  the  scales  help  considerably 
in  filling  the  triangular  space  usually  left  over  a Gothic 
doorway.  At  Chartres,  there  is  an  example  of  this 
subject,  in  which  Mortal  Sin,  typified  by  a devil  and 
two  toads,  are  being  weighed  against  the  soul  of  a de- 
parted hero.  As  is  customary  in  such  compositions, 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


235 


a little  devil  is  seen  pulling  on  the  side  of  the  scale  in 
which  he  is  most  interested! 

One  of  the  most  cheerful  and  delightful  figures  at 
Chartres  is  that  of  the  very  tall  angel  holding  a sun  dial, 
on  the  corner  of  the  South  tower.  A certain  optimistic 
inconsequence  is  his  chief  characteristic,  as  if  he  really 
believed  that  the  hours  bore  more  of  happiness  than  of 
sorrow  to  the  world. 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  originality  and  the  symbolic 
messages  of  the  Gothic  grotesques.  Two  whole  books 
might  be  written  upon  this  subject  alone  to  do  it  justice; 
but  a few  notable  instances  of  these  charming  little 
adornments  to  the  stern  structures  of  the  Middle  Ages 
must  be  noticed  here.  The  little  medallions  at  Amiens 
deserve  some  attention.  They  represent  the  Virtues 
and  Vices,  the  Follies,  and  other  ethical  qualities.  Some 
of  them  deal  with  Scriptural  scenes.  “ Churlishness  v 
is  figured  by  a woman  kicking  over  her  cup-bearer. 
Apropos  of  her  attitude,  Ruskin  observes  that  the  final 
forms  of  French  churlishness  are  to  be  discovered  in  the 
feminine  gestures  in  the  can-can.  He  adds:  “ See  the 
favourite  print  shops  in  Paris.”  Times  have  certainly 
changed  little! 

One  of  these  Amiens  reliefs,  signifying  “ Rebellion,” 
is  that  of  a man  snapping  his  fingers  at  his  bishop ! An- 
other known  as  “ Atheism  ” is  variously  interpreted. 
A man  is  seen  stepping  out  of  his  shoes  at  the  church 
porch.  Ruskin  explains  this  as  meaning  that  the  infidel 
is  shown  in  contradistinction  to  the  faithful  who  is  sup- 


236  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


posed  to  have  “ his  feet  shod  with  the  preparation  of 
the  Gospel  of  Peace;  ” but  Abbe  Roze  thinks  it  more 
likely  that  this  figure  represents  an  unfrocked  monk 
abandoning  the  church. 

One  of  these  displays  the  beasts  in  Nineveh,  and  a 
little  squat  monkey,  developing  into  a devil,  is  wittily 
characterized  by  Ruskin  as  reversing  the  Darwinian 
theory. 

The  statues  above  these  little  quatrefoils  are  over 
seven  feet  in  height,  differing  slightly,  and  evidently 
portrait  sculptures  inspired  by  living  models,  adapted 
to  their  more  austere  use  in  this  situation. 

A quiet  and  inconspicuous  example  of  exquisite 
refinement  in  Gothic  bas-relief  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
medallioned  “ Portail  aux  Libraires  ” at  the  Cathedral 
in  Rouen.  This  doorway  was  built  in  1278  by  Jean 
Davi,  who  must  have  been  one  of  the  first  sculptors  of 
his  time.  The  medallions  are  a series  of  little  grotesques, 
some  of  them  ineffably  entertaining,  and  others  express- 
ive of  real  depth  of  knowledge  and  thought.  Ruskin 
has  eulogized  some  of  these  little  figures:  one  as  having 
in  its  eye  “ the  expression  which  is  never  seen  but  in  the 
eye  of  a dog  gnawing  something  in  jest,  and  preparing 
to  start  away  with  it.”  Again,  he  detects  a wonderful 
piece  of  realism  and  appreciative  work  in  the  face  of  a 
man  who  leans  with  his  head  on  his  hand  in  thought: 
the  wrinkles  pushed  up  under  his  eye  are  especially 
commended. 

In  the  south  transept  at  Amiens  is  a piece  of  elabo- 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


237 


rate  sculpture  in  four  compartments,  which  are  the 
figures  of  many  saints.  There  is  a legend  in  connection 
with  those  figures:  when  the  millers  were  about  to 
select  a patron  saint,  they  agreed  to  choose  the  saint 
on  whose  head  a dove,  released  for  the  purpose,  should 
alight;  but  as  the  bird  elected  to  settle  on  the  head  of 
a demon,  they  abandoned  their  plan!  The  figures  in 
these  carvings  are  almost  free  of  the  ground;  they 
appear  to  be  a collection  of  separate  statuettes,  the 
scenes  being  laid  in  three  or  four  planes.  It  is  not 
restrained  bas-relief;  but  the  effect  is  extremely  rich. 
The  sculptures  in  high  relief,  but  in  more  conventional 
proportion  than  these,  which  occur  on  the  dividing  wall 
between  the  choir  and  the  north  aisle,  are  thoroughly 
satisfactory.  They  are  coloured;  they  were  executed 
in  1531,  and  they  represent  scenes  in  the  life  of  the 
Baptist.  In  the  panel  where  Salome  is  portrayed  as 
dancing,  a grave  little  monkey  is  seen  watching  her 
from  under  the  table.  The  similar  screen  surrounding 
the  sanctuary  at  Paris  was  the  work  of  the  chief  cathe- 
dral architect,  Jean  Penoy,  with  whom  worked  his 
nephew,  Jehan  le  Bouteiller.  These  stone  carved 
screens  are  quite  usual  in  the  He  de  France.  The  finest 
are  at  Chartres,  where  they  go  straight  around  the 
ambulatory,  the  whole  choir  being  fenced  in,  as  it  were, 
about  the  apse,  by  this  exquisite  work.  This  screen 
is  more  effective,  too,  for  being  left  in  the  natural  colour 
of  the  stone : where  these  sculptures  are  painted,  as  they 
usually  are,  they  suggest  wood  carvings,  and  have 


238  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


not  as  much  dignity  as  when  the  stone  is  fully 
recognized. 

The  Door  of  St.  Marcel  has  the  oldest  carving  on 
Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  The  plate  representing  the  iron 
work,  in  Chapter  IV.,  shows  the  carving  on  this  portal, 
which  is  the  same  that  has  Biscornette’s  famous  hinges. 
The  central  figure  of  St.  Marcel  himself  presents  the 
saint  in  the  act  of  reproving  a naughty  dragon  which 
had  had  the  indiscretion  to  devour  the  body  of  a rich 
but  wicked  lady.  The  dragon  is  seen  issuing  from  the 
dismantled  tomb  of  this  unfortunate  person.  The 
dragon  repented  his  act,  when  the  saint  had  finished 
admonishing  him,  and  showed  his  attachment  and 
gratitude  for  thus  being  led  in  paths  of  rectitude,  by 
following  the  saint  for  four  miles,  apparently  walking 
much  as  a seal  would  walk,  beseeching  the  saint  to 
forgive  him.  But  Marcel  was  firm,  and  punished 
the  serpent,  saying  to  him:  “ Go  forth  and  inhabit 
the  deserts  or  plunge  thyself  into  the  sea;  ” and, 
as  St.  Patrick  rid  the  Celtic  land  of  snakes,  so  St. 
Marcel  seems  to  have  banished  dragons  from  fair 
France. 

At  Chartres  there  are  eighteen  hundred  statues, 
and  almost  as  many  at  Amiens  and  at  Rheims  and 
Paris.  One  reason  for  the  superiority  of  French  figure 
sculpture  in  the  thirteenth  century,  over  that  existing 
in  other  countries,  is  that  the  French  used  models. 
There  has  been  preserved  the  sketch  book  of  a mediaeval 
French  architect,  Vilard  de  Honcourt,  which  is  filled 


CARVINGS 


AROUND  CHOIR  AMBULATORY,  CHARTRES 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


239 


with  studies  from  life:  and  why  should  we  suppose  him 
to  be  the  only  one  who  worked  in  this  way? 

Rheims  Cathedral  is  the  Mecca  of  the  student  of 
mediaeval  sculpture.  The  array  of  statues  on  the  ex- 
terior is  amazing,  and  a walk  around  the  great  structure 
reveals  unexpected  riches  in  corbels,  gargoyles,  and  other 
grotesques,  hidden  at  all  heights,  each  a veritable 
work  of  art,  repaying  the  closest  study,  and  inviting 
the  enthusiast  to  undue  extravagance  at  a shop  in  the 
vicinity,  which  advertises  naively,  that  it  is  an  “ Artis- 
tical  Photograph  Laboratory.” 

On  the  door  of  St.  Germain  TAuxerrois  in  Paris, 
there  is  a portrait  statue  of  St.  Genevieve,  holding  a 
lighted  candle,  while  “ the  devil  in  little  ” sits  on  her 
shoulder,  exerting  himself  to  blow  it  out!  It  is  quite  a 
droll  conceit  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Of  the  leaf  forms  in  Gothic  sculpture,  three  styles  are 
enough  to  generalize  about.  The  early  work  usually 
represented  springlike  leaves,  clinging,  half-developed, 
and  buds.  Later,  a more  luxuriant  foliage  was  attempted : 
the  leaves  and  stalks  were  twisted,  and  the  style  was 
more  like  that  actually  seen  in  nature.  Then  came  an 
overblown  period,  when  the  leaves  were  positively 
detached,  and  the  style  was  lost.  The  foliage  was  no 
longer  integral,  but  was  applied. 

There  is  little  of  the  personal  element  to  be  exploited 
in  dealing  with  the  sculptors  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Until 
the  days  of  the  Renaissance  individual  artists  were 
scarcely  recognized;  master  masons  employed  “ im- 


240  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


agers  ” as  casually  as  we  would  employ  brick-layers  or 
plasterers;  and  no  matter  how  brilliant  the  work,  it 
was  all  included  in  the  general  term  “ building.” 

The  first  piece  of  signed  sculpture  in  France  is  a 
tympanum  in  the  south  transept  at  Paris,  representing 
the  Stoning  of  Stephen.  It  is  by  Jean  de  Chelles,  in 
1257.  St.  Louis  of  France  was  a patron  of  arts,  and  took 
much  interest  in  his  sculptors.  There  were  two  Jean 
de  Montereau,  who  carved  sacred  subjects  in  quite  an 
extraordinary  way.  Jean  de  Soignoles,  in  1359,  was 
designated  as  “ Macon  et  Ymageur.”  One  of  the  chief 
“ imageurs,”  as  they  were  called,  was  Jacques  Haag, 
who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
in  Amiens.  This  artist  was  imprisoned  for  sweating 
coin,  but  in  1481  the  king  pardoned  him.  He  executed 
large  statues  for  the  city  gates,  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
Firmin,  in  1464  and  1489.  There  was  a sculptor  in  Paris 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  one  Hennequin  de  Liege,  who 
made  several  tombs  in  black  and  white  marble,  among 
them  that  of  Blanche  de  France,  and  the  effigy  of  Queen 
Philippa  at  Westminster. 

It  was  customary  both  in  France  and  England  to  use 
colour  on  Gothic  architecture.  It  is  curious  to  realize 
that  the  fagade  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  was  originally 
a great  colour  scheme.  A literary  relic,  the  “ Voyage  of 
an  Armenian  Bishop,”  named  Martyr,  in  the  year  1490, 
alludes  to  the  beauty  of  this  cathedral  of  Paris,  as  being 
ablaze  with  gold  and  colour. 

An  old  record  of  the  screen  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Andrew 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


241 


at  Westminster  mentions  that  it  was  “ adorned  with 
curious  carvings  and  engravings,  and  other  imagery- 
work  of  birds,  flowers,  cherubims,  devices,  mottoes,  and 
coats  of  arms  of  many  of  the  chief  nobility  painted 
thereon.  All  done  at  the  cost  of  Edmond  Kirton,  Abbot, 
who  lies  buried  on  the  south  side  of  the  chapel  under  a 
plain  gray  marble  slab.”  H.  Keepe,  who  wrote  of 
Westminster  Abbey  in  1683,  mentioned  the  virgin  over 
the  Chapter  House  door  as  being  “ all  richly  enamelled 
and  set  forth  with  blue,  some  vestigia  of  all  which  are 
still  remaining,  whereby  to  judge  of  the  former  splendour 
and  beauty  thereof.”  Accounts  make  frequent  mention 
of  painters  employed,  one  being  “ Peter  of  Spain,” 
and  another  William  of  Westminster,  who  was  called 
the  “ king’s  beloved  painter.” 

King  Rene  of  Anjou  was  an  amateur  of  much  versa- 
tility; he  painted  and  made  many  illuminations : among 
other  volumes,  copies  of  his  own  works  in  prose  and 
verse.  Aside  from  his  personal  claim  to  renown  in  the 
arts,  he  founded  a school  in  which  artists  and  sculptors 
were  included.  One  of  the  chief  sculptors  was  Jean 
Poncet,  who  was  followed  in  the  king’s  favour  by  his 
son  Pons  Poncet.  Poor  Pons  was  something  of  a back- 
slider, being  rather  dissipated;  but  King  Rene  was 
fond  of  him,  and  gave  him  work  to  do  when  he  was 
reduced  to  poverty.  The  monument  to  his  nurse, 
Tiphanie,  at  Saumur,  was  entrusted  to  Pons  Poncet. 
After  the  death  of  Pons,  the  chief  sculptor  of  the  court 
was  Jacques  Moreau. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


SCULPTURE  IN  STONE 

( England  and  Germany) 

A progressive  history  of  English  sculpture  in  stone 
could  be  compiled  by  going  from  church  to  church,  and 
studying  the  tympana,  over  the  doors,  in  Romanesque 
and  Norman  styles,  and  in  following  the  works  in  the 
spandrils  between  the  arches  in  early  Gothic  work. 
First  we  find  rude  sculptures,  not  unlike  those  in  France. 
The  Saxon  work  like  the  two  low  reliefs  now  to  be  seen 
in  Chichester  Cathedral  show  dug-out  lines  and  almost 
flat  modelling;  then  the  Norman,  slightly  rounded,  are 
full  of  historic  interest  and  significance,  though  often 
lacking  in  beauty.  The  two  old  panels  alluded  to,  now 
in  Chichester,  were  supposed  to  have  been  brought 
from  Selsea  Cathedral,  having  been  executed  about  the 
twelfth  century.  There  is  a good  deal  of  Byzantine 
feeling  in  them;  one  represents  the  Raising  of  Lazarus, 
and  the  other,  Our  Lord  entering  the  house  of  Mary 
and  Martha.  The  figures  are  long  and  stiff,  and  there 
is  a certain  quality  in  the  treatment  of  draperies  not 
unlike  that  in  the  figures  at  Chartres. 

Then  follows  the  very  early  Gothic^  like  the  delightful 

242 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


243 


little  spandrils  in  the  chapter  house  at  Salisbury,  and 
at  Westminster,  familiar  to  all  travellers.  They  are  full 
of  life,  partly  through  the  unanatomic  contortions 
by  means  of  which  they  are  made  to  express  their 
emotions.  Often  one  sees  elbows  bent  the  wrong  way 
to  emphasize  the  gesture  of  denunciation,  or  a foot 
stepping  quite  across  the  instep  of  its  mate  in  order  to 
suggest  speed  of  motion.  Early  Gothic  work  in  England 
is  usually  bas-relief ; one  does  not  find  the  statue  as  early 
as  in  France.  In  1176  William  of  Sens  went  over  to 
England,  to  work  on  Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  after 
that  French  influence  was  felt  in  most  of  the  best 
English  work  in  that  century.  Before  the  year  1200 
there  was  little  more  than  ornamented  spaces,  enriched 
by  carving;  after  that  time,  figure  sculpture  began  in 
earnest,  and,  in  statues  and  in  effigies,  became  a large 
part  of  the  craftsmanship  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  transition  was  gradual.  First  small  separate 
heads  began  to  obtain,  as  corbels,  and  were  bracketed 
at  the  junctures  of  the  arch-mouldings  in  the  arcade 
and  triforium  of  churches.  Then  on  the  capitals  little 
figures  began  to  emerge  from  the  clusters  of  foliage. 
In  many  cases  the  figures  are  very  inferior  to  the  faces, 
as  if  more  time  and  study  had  been  given  to  express- 
ing emotions  than  to  displaying  form.  The  grotesque 
became  very  general.  Satire  and  caricature  had  no 
other  vehicle  in  the  Middle  Ages  than  the  carvings  in 
and  out  of  the  buildings,  for  the  cartoon  had  not  yet 
become  possible,  and  painting  offered  but  a limited 


244  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


scope  to  the  wit,  especially  in  the  North;  in  Italy  this 
outlet  for  humour  was  added  to  that  of  the  sculptor. 

Of  the  special  examples  of  great  figure  sculpture 
in  England  the  fagade  at  Wells  is  usually  considered  the 
most  significant.  The  angel  choir  at  Lincoln,  too,  has 
great  interest;  there  is  real  power  in  some  of  the  figures, 
especially  the  angel  with  the  flaming  sword  driving 
Adam  and  Eve  from  Eden,  and  the  one  holding  aloft 
a small  figure,  — probably  typical  of  the  Creation.  At 
Salisbury,  too,  there  is  much  splendid  figure  sculpture; 
it  is  cause  for  regret  that  the  names  of  so  few  of  the 
craftsmen  have  survived. 

Wells  Cathedral  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  spots 
in  which  to  study  English  Gothic  sculpture.  Its  beauti- 
ful West  Front  is  covered  with  tier  after  tier  of  heroes 
and  saints;  it  was  finished  in  1242.  This  is  the  year 
that  Cimabue  was  three  years  old;  Niccola  Pisano  had 
lived  during  its  building,  Amiens  was  finished  forty-six 
years  later,  and  Orvieto  was  begun  thirty-six  years  later. 
It  is  literally  the  earliest  specimen  of  so  advanced  and 
complete  a museum  of  sculpture  in  the  West.  Many 
critics  have  assumed  that  the  statues  on  the  West  Front 
of  Wells  were  executed  by  foreign  workmen;  but  there 
are  no  special  characteristics  of  any  known  foreign 
school  in  these  figures.  Messrs.  Prior  and  Gardner  have 
recently  expressed  their  opinion  that  these  statues, 
like  most  of  the  thirteenth  century  work  in  England, 
are  of  native  origin.  The  theory  is  that  two  kinds  of 
influence  were  brought  to  bear  to  create  English  “ im- 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


245 


agers.”  In  the  first  place,  goldsmiths  and  ivory  carvers 
had  been  making  figures  on  a small  scale:  their  trade 
was  gradually  expanded  until  it  reached  the  execution 
of  statues  for  the  outside  ornament  of  buildings.  The 
figures  carved  by  such  artists  are  inclined  to  be  squat, 
these  craftsmen  having  often  been  hampered  by  being 
obliged  to  accommodate  their  design  to  their  material, 
and  to  treat  the  human  figure  to  appear  in  spaces  of  such 
shapes  as  circles,  squares,  and  trefoils.  Another  class 
of  workers  who  finally  turned  their  attention  to  statuary, 
were  the  carvers  of  sepulchral  slabs:  these  slabs  had  for 
a long  time  shown  the  effigies  of  the  deceased.  This 
theory  accounts  for  both  types  of  figures  that  are  found 
in  English  Gothic,  — the  extremely  attenuated,  and 
the  blunt  squat  statues.  At  Wells  it  would  seem  that 
both  classes  of  workmen  were  employed,  some  of  the 
statues  being  short  and  some  extremely  tall.  They  were 
executed,  evidently,  at  different  periods,  the  fagade 
being  gradually  decorated,  sometimes  in  groups  of 
several  statues,  and  sometimes  in  simple  pairs.  This 
theory,  too,  lends  a far  greater  interest  to  the  west 
front  than  the  theory  that  it  was  all  carried  out  at 
once,  from  one  intentional  design. 

St.  Nicholas,  the  patron  saint  of  Baptism,  is  here 
represented,  holding  a child  on  his  arm,  and  standing 
in  water  up  to  his  knees.  The  water,  being  treated 
in  a very  conventional  way,  coiling  about  the  lower 
limbs,  is  so  suggestive  of  tiers  of  flat  discs,  that  it  has 
won  for  this  statue  the  popular  name  of  “ the  pancake 


246  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


man,”  for  he  certainly  looks  as  if  he  had  taken  up  his 
position  in  the  midst  of  a pile  of  pancakes,  into  which 
he  had  sunk. 

The  old  statue  of  St.  Hugh  at  Lincoln  is  an  attractive 
early  Gothic  work.  In  1743  he  was  removed  from  his 
precarious  perch  on  the  top  of  a stone  pinnacle,  and 
was  placed  more  firmly  afterwards.  In  a letter  from 
the  Clerk  of  the  Works  this  process  was  described.  “ I 
must  acquaint  you  that  I took  down  the  antient  image 
of  St.  Hugh,  which  is  about  six  foot  high,  and  stood  upon 
the  summit  of  a stone  pinnacle  at  the  South  corner  of 
the  West  Front  . . . and  pulled  down  twenty-two  feet 
of  the  pinnacle  itself,  which  was  ready  to  tumble  into 
ruins,  the  shell  being  but  six  inches  thick,  and  the  ribs 
so  much  decayed  that  it  declined  visibly.  ...  I hope 
to  see  the  saint  fixed  upon  a firmer  basis  before  the 
Winter.”  On  the  top  of  a turret  opposite  St.  Hugh  is 
the  statue  of  the  Swineherd  of  Stowe.  This  personage 
became  famous  through  contributing  a peck  of  silver 
pennies  toward  the  building  of  the  cathedral.  As  is 
usually  the  case,  the  saint  and  the  donor  therefore 
occupy  positions  of  equal  exaltation!  The  swineherd 
is  equipped  with  a winding  horn.  A foolish  tradition 
without  foundation  maintains  that  this  figure  does  not 
represent  the  Swineherd  at  all,  but  is  a play  upon  the 
name  of  Bishop  Bloet,  — the  horn  being  intended 
to  suggest  “ Blow  it!  ” It  seems  hardly  possible  to 
credit  the  mediaeval  wit  with  no  keener  sense  of  humour 
than  to  perpetrate  such  a far-fetched  pun. 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


247 


The  Lincoln  Imp,  who  sits  enthroned  at  the  foot  of 
a cul-de-lampe  in  the  choir,  is  so  familiar  to  every  child, 
now,  through  his  photographs  and  casts,  that  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  describe  him.  But  many  visitors  to  the 
cathedral  fail  to  come  across  the  old  legend  of  his  origin. 
It  is  as  follows:  “ The  wind  one  day  brought  two  imps 
to  view  the  new  Minster  at  Lincoln.  Both  imps  were 
greatly  impressed  with  the  magnitude  and  beauty  of  the 
structure,  and  one  of  them,  smitten  by  a fatal  curiosity, 
slipped  inside  the  building  to  see  what  was  going  on. 
His  temerity,  however,  cost  him  dear,  for  he  was  so 
petrified  with  astonishment,  that  his  heart  became  as 
stone  within  him,  and  he  remained  rooted  to  the  spot. 
The  other  imp,  full  of  grief  at  the  loss  of  his  brother, 
flew  madly  round  the  Minster,  seeking  in  vain  for  the 
lost  one.  At  length,  being  wearied  out,  he  alighted, 
quite  unwittingly,  upon  the  shoulders  of  a certain  witch, 
and  was  also,  and  in  like  manner,  instantly  turned  to 
stone.  But  the  wind  still  haunts  the  Minster  precincts, 
waiting  their  return,  now  hopelessly  desolate,  now 
raging  with  fury.”  A verse,  also,  is  interesting  in  this 
connection : 

“ The  Bishop  we  know  died  long  ago, 

The  wind  still  waits,  nor  will  he  go, 

Till  he  has  a chance  of  beating  his  foe. 

But  the  devil  hopped  without  a limp, 

And  at  once  took  shape  as  the  Lincoln  Imp. 

And  there  he  sits  atop  of  a column, 

And  grins  at  the  people  who  gaze  so  solemn, 

Moreover,  he  mocks  at  the  wind  below, 

And  says:  * You  may  wait  till  doomsday,  O!  * ” 


248  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  effigies  in  the  Round  Church  at  the  Temple  in 
London  have  created  much  discussion.  They  represent 
Crusaders,  two  dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  and 
seven  from  the  thirteenth.  Most  of  them  have  their 
feet  crossed,  and  the  British  antiquarian  mind  has 
exploited  and  tormented  itself  for  some  centuries  in 
order  to  prove,  or  to  disprove,  that  this  signifies  that  the 
warriors  were  crusaders  who  had  actually  fought.  There 
seems  now  to  be  rather  a concensus  of  opinion  that  they 
do  not  represent  Knights  Templars,  but  “ associates 
of  the  Temple.”  As  none  of  them  can  be  certainly 
identified,  this  controversy  would  appear  to  be  of  little 
consequence  to  the  world  at  large.  The  effigies  are 
extremely  interesting  from  an  artistic  point  of  view, 
and,  in  repairing  them,  in  1840,  Mr.  Richardson  dis- 
covered traces  of  coloured  enamels  and  gilding,  which 
must  have  rendered  them  most  attractive. 

Henry  III.  of  England  was  a genuine  art  patron,  and 
even  evinced  some  of  the  spirit  of  socialism  so  dear  to 
the  heart  of  William  Morris,  for  the  old  records  relate 
that  the  Master  Mason,  John  of  Gloucester,  was  in  the 
habit  of  taking  wine  each  day  with  the  King ! This  shows 
that  Henry  recognized  the  levelling  as  well  as  the  raising 
power  of  the  arts.  In  1255  the  king  sent  five  casks  of 
wine  to  the  mason,  in  payment  for  five  with  which 
John  of  Gloucester  had  accommodated  his  Majesty  at 
Oxford!  This  is  an  intimate  and  agreeable  departure 
from  the  despotic  and  grim  reputation  of  early  Kings 
of  England. 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


249 


In  1321  the  greatest  mediaeval  craftsman  in  England 
was  Alan  de  Walsingham,  who  built  the  great  octagon 
from  which  Ely  derives  its  chief  character  among  Eng- 
lish cathedrals.  In  a fourteenth  century  manuscript  in 
the  British  Museum  is  a tribute  to  him,  which  is  thus 
translated  by  Dean  Stubbs  (now  Bishop  of  Truro): 

“ A Sacrist  good  and  Prior  benign, 

A builder  he  of  genius  fine: 

The  flower  of  craftsmen,  Alan,  Prior, 

Now  lying  entombed  before  the  choir  . . . 

And  when,  one  night,  the  old  tower  fell, 

This  new  one  he  built,  and  mark  it  well.” 


This  octagon  was  erected  to  the  glory  of  God  and  to 
St.  Etheidreda,  the  Queen  Abbess  of  Ely,  known  fre- 
quently as  St.  Awdry.  Around  the  base  of  the  octagon, 
at  the  crests  of  the  great  piers  which  carry  it,  Prior 
Alan  had  carved  the  Deeds  of  the  Saint  in  a series  of 
decorative  bosses  which  deserve  close  study.  The  scene 
of  her  marriage,  her  subsequently  taking  the  veil  at 
Coldingham,  and  the  various  miracles  over  which  she 
presided,  terminate  in  the  death  and  “ chesting  ” of 
the  saint.  This  ancient  term  is  very  literal,  as  the  body 
was  placed  in  a stone  coffin  above  the  ground,  and 
therefore  the  word  “ burial  ” would  be  incorrect. 

The  tomb  of  Queen  Eleanor  in  Westminster  is  of 
Purbeck  marble,  treated  in  the  style  of  Southern  sculp- 
ture, being  cut  in  thin  slabs  and  enriched  with  low 
relief  ornamentation.  The  recumbent  effigy  is  in  bronze, 
and  was  cast,  as  has  been  stated,  by  Master  William 


250  Arts  and  Crafts  In  the  Middle  Ages 


Torel.  Master  Walter  of  Durham  painted  the  lower 
portion.  Master  Richard  Crundale  was  in  charge  of  the 
general  work. 

Master  John  of  St.  Albans  worked  in  about  1257, 
and  was  designated  “ sculptor  of  the  king’s  images.” 
There  was  at  this  time  a school  of  sculpture  at  the  Abbey. 
This  Westminster  School  of  Artificers  supplied  statuettes 
and  other  sculptured  ornaments  to  order  for  various 
places.  One  of  the  craftsmen  was  Alexander  “ le 
imaginator.”  In  the  Rolls  of  the  Works  at  West- 
minster, there  is  an  entry,  “ Master  John,  with  a carpenter 
and  assistant  at  St.,  Albans,  worked  on  the  lectern.” 
This  referred  to  a copy  which  was  ordered  of  a rarely 
beautiful  lectern  at  St.  Albans’  cathedral,  which  had 
been  made  by  the  “ incomparable  Walter  of  Colchester.” 
Labour  was  cheap!  There  is  record  of  three  shillings 
being  paid  to  John  Benet  for  three  capitals! 

Among  Westminster  labourers  was  one  known  as 
Brother  Ralph,  the  Convert;  this  individual  was  a re- 
formed Jew.  Among  the  craftsmen  selected  to  receive 
wine  from  the  convent  with  “ special  grace  ” is  the 
goldsmith,  Master  R.  de  Fremlingham,  who  was  then 
the  Abbey  plumber. 

There  was  a master  mason  in  1326,  who  worked  at 
Westminster  and  in  various  other  places  on  His  Majesty’s 
Service.  This  was  William  Ramsay,  who  also  super- 
intended the  building  then  in  progress  at  St.  Paul’s, 
and  was  a man  of  such  importance  in  his  art,  that  the 
mayor  and  aldermen  ordered  that  he  should  “ not  be 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


251 


placed  on  juries  or  inquests  ” during  the  time  of  his 
activity.  He  was  also  chief  mason  at  the  Tower.  But 
in  spite  of  the  city  fathers  it  was  not  possible  to  keep 
this  worthy  person  out  of  court!  For  he  and  some  of 
his  friends,  in  1332,  practically  kidnapped  a youth  of 
fourteen  named  Robert  Huberd,  took  him  forcibly 
from  his  appointed  guardian,  and  married  him  out  of 
hand  to  William  Ramsay’s  daughter  Agnes,  the  reason 
for  this  step  being  evidently  that  the  boy  had  money. 
Upon  the  complaint  of  his  guardian,  Robert  was  given 
his  choice  whether  he  would  remain  with  his  bride  or 
return  to  his  former  home.  He  deliberately  chose  his 
new  relations,  and  so,  as  the  marriage  was  quite  legal 
according  to  existing  laws,  everything  went  pleasantly 
for  Master  William!  It  made  no  difference,  either,  in 
the  respect  of  the  community  or  the  king  for  the  master 
mason;  in  1344,  he  was  appointed  to  superintend  the 
building  at  Windsor,  and  was  made  a member  of  the 
Common  Council  in  1347.  Verily,  the  Old  Testament 
days  were  not  the  last  in  which  every  man  “ did  that 
which  was  right  in  his  own  eyes.” 

Carter  gives  some  curious  historical  explanations  of 
some  very  quaint  and  little-known  sculptures  in  a 
frieze  high  up  in  the  Chapel  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
in  Westminster.  One  of  them  represents  the  Trial  of 
Queen  Emma,  and  is  quite  a spirited  scene.  The  little 
accusing  hands  raised  against  the  central  figure  of  the 
queen,  are  unique  in  effect  in  a carving  of  this  character. 
Queen  Emma  was  accused  of  so  many  misdemeanours, 


252  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


poor  lady!  She  had  agreed  to  marry  the  enemy  of  her 
kingdom,  King  Canute:  she  gave  no  aid  to  her  sons, 
Edward  the  Confessor  and  Alfred,  when  in  exile;  and 
she  was  also  behaving  in  a very  unsuitable  manner  with 
Alwin,  Bishop  of  Winchester:  she  seems  to  have  been 
versatile  in  crime,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  she  was 
invited  to  withdraw  from  her  high  estate. 

The  burial  of  Henry  V.  is  interestingly  described  in 
an  old  manuscript  of  nearly  contemporary  origin:  “ His 
body  was  embalmed  and  cired  and  laid  on  a royal 
carriage,  and  an  image  like  to  him  was  laid  upon  the 
corpse,  open:  and  with  divers  banners,  and  horses, 
covered  with  the  arms  of  England  and  France,  St. 
Edward  and  St.  Edmund  . . . and  brought  with  great 
solemnity  to  Westminster,  and  worshipfully  buried; 
and  after  was  laid  on  his  tomb  a royal  image  like  to 
himself,  of  silver  and  gilt,  which  was  made  at  the  cost 
of  Queen  Katherine  ...  he  ordained  in  his  life  the  place 
of  his  sepulchre,  where  he  is  now  buried,  and  every  daye 
III.  masses  perpetually  to  be  sungen  in  a fair  chapel  over 
his  sepulchre/’  This  exquisite  arrangement  of  a little 
raised  chantry,  and  the  noble  tomb  itself,  was  the  work 
of  Master  Mapilton,  who  came  from  Durham  in  1416. 

Mr.  W.  R.  Lethaby  calls  attention  to  the  practical 
and  expedient  way  in  which  mediaeval  carvers  of  effigies 
utilized  their  long  blocks  of  stone:  “ Notice,”  he  says, 
“ how  . . . the  angels  at  the  head  and  the  beast  at  the 
foot  were  put  in  just  to  square  out  the  block,  and  how 
all  the  points  of  high  relief  come  to  one  plane  so  that 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


253 


a drawing  board  might  be  firmly  placed  on  the  statue.” 
Only  such  cutting  away  as  was  actually  necessary  was 
encouraged;  the  figure  was  usually  represented  as  put- 
ting the  earthly  powers  beneath  his  feet,  while  angels 
ministered  at  his  head.  St.  Louis  ordered  a crown  of 
thorns  to  be  placed  on  his  head  when  he  was  dying, 
and  the  crown  of  France  placed  at  his  feet.  The  little 
niches  around  the  tombs,  in  which  usually  stood  figures 
of  saints,  were  called  “ hovels .”  It  is  amusing  to  learn 
this  to-day,  with  our  long  established  association  of  the 
word  with  poverty  and  squalor. 

Henry  VII.  left  directions  for  the  design  of  his  tomb. 
Among  other  stipulations,  it  was  to  be  adorned  with 
“ ymages  ” of  his  patron  saints  “ of  copper  and  gilte.” 
Henry  then  “ calls  and  cries  ” to  his  guardian  saints 
and  directs  that  the  tomb  shall  have  “ a grate,  in  manner 
of  a closure,  of  coper  and  gilte,”  which  was  added  by 
English  craftsmen.  Inside  this  grille  in  the  early  days 
was  an  altar,  containing  a unique  relic,  — a leg  of  St. 
George. 

Sculpture  and  all  other  decorative  arts  reached  their 
ultimatum  in  England  about  the  time  of  the  construc- 
tion of  Henry  VII. ’s  chapel  at  Westminster.  The 
foundation  stone  was  laid  in  1502,  by  Henry  himself. 
Of  the  interesting  monuments  and  carvings  contained 
in  it,  the  most  beautiful  is  the  celebrated  bronze  figure 
by  Torregiano  on  the  tomb  of  the  king  and  queen,  which 
was  designed  during  their  lives.  Torregiano  was  born 
in  1470,  and  died  in  1522,  so  he  is  not  quite  a mediaeval 


254  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


figure,  but  in  connection  with  his  wonderful  work  we 
must  consider  his  career  a moment.  Vasari  says  that 
he  had  “ more  pride  than  true  artistic  excellence.” 
He  was  constantly  interfering  with  Michelangelo,  with 
whom  he  was  a student  in  Florence,  and  on  one  mem- 
orable occasion  they  came  to  blows:  and  that  was  the 
day  when  “ Torregiano  struck  Michelangelo  on  the  nose 
with  his  fist,  using  such  terrible  violence  and  crushing 
that  feature  in  such  a manner  that  the  proper  form 
could  never  be  restored  to  it,  and  Michelangelo  had  his 
nose  flattened  by  that  blow  all  his  life.”  So  Torregiano 
fled  from  the  Medicean  wrath  which  would  have  de- 
scended upon  him.  After  a short  career  as  a soldier, 
impatient  at  not  being  rapidly  promoted,  he  returned 
to  his  old  profession  of  a sculptor.  He  went  to  England, 
where,  says  Vasari,  “ he  executed  many  works  in  marble, 
bronze,  and  wood,  for  the  king.”  The  chief  of  these 
was  the  striking  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  and  the  queen. 
Torregiano’s  agreement  was  to  make  it  for  a thousand 
pounds:  also  there  is  a contract  which  he  signed  with 
Henry  VIII.,  agreeing  to  construct  a similar  tomb  also 
for  that  monarch,  to  be  one  quarter  part  larger  than 
that  of  Henry  VII.,  but  this  was  not  carried  out. 

St.  Anthony  appears  on  a little  sculptured  medallion 
on  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.,  with  a small  pig  trotting 
beside  him.  This  is  St.  Anthony  of  Vienna,  not  of  Padua. 
His  legend  is  as  follows.  In  an  old  document,  New- 
court’s  Repertorium,  it  is  related  that  “ the  monks  of 
St.  Anthony  with  their  importunate  begging,  contrary 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


255 


to  the  example  of  St.  Anthony,  are  so  troublesome,  as, 
if  men  give  them  nothing,  they  will  presently  threaten 
them  with  St.  Anthony’s  fire;  so  that  many  simple 
people,  out  of  fear  or  blind  zeal,  every  year  use  to  bestow 
on  them  a fat  pig,  or  porker,  which  they  have  ordinarily 
painted  in  their  pictures  of  St.  Anthony,  whereby  they 
may  procure  their  good  will  and  their  prayers,  and  be 
secure  from  their  menaces.” 

Torregiano’s  contract  read  that  he  should  “ make 
well,  surely,  cleanly,  and  workmanlike,  curiously,  and 
substantially  ” the  marble  tomb  with  “ images,  beasts, 
and  other  things,  of  copper,  gilte.”  Another  craftsman 
who  exercised  his  skill  in  this  chapel  was  Lawrence 
Imber,  image  maker,  and  in  1500  the  names  of  John 
Hudd,  sculptor,  and  Nicolas  Delphyn,  occur.  Some  of 
the  figures  and  statuettes  on  the  tomb  were  also  made 
by  Draws werd  of  York. 

On  the  outer  ribs  of  Henry  VII.’s  chapel  may  be  de- 
tected certain  little  symmetrically  disposed  bosses,  which 
at  first  glance  one  would  suppose  to  be  inconspicuous 
crockets.  But  in  an  admirable  spirit  of  humour,  the 
sculptor  has  here  carved  a series  of  griffins,  in  pro- 
cession, holding  on  for  dear  life,  in  the  attitudes  of 
children  sliding  down  the  banisters.  They  are  delight- 
fully animated  and  amusing. 

The  well-known  figures  of  the  Vices  which  stand 
around  the  quadrangle  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
are  interpreted  by  an  old  Latin  manuscript  in  the  college. 
The  statues  should  properly  be  known  as  the  Virtues 


256  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


and  Vices,  for  some  of  them  represent  such  moral 
qualities  as  Vigilance,  Sobriety,  and  Affection.  It  is 
indeed  a shock  to  learn  from  this  presumably  authori- 
tative source,  that  the  entertaining  figure  of  a patient 
nondescript  animal,  upon  whose  back  a small  reptile 


GROTESQUE  FROM  OXFORD,  POPULARLY  KNOWN  AS 
THE  BACKBITER  ” 

clings,  is  not  intended  to  typify  “ back  biting/’  but  is 
intended  for  a “ hippopotamus,  or  river-horse,  carrying 
his  young  one  upon  his  shoulders;  this  is  the  emblem 
of  a good  tutor,  or  fellow  of  the  college,  who  is  set  to 
watch  over  the  youth.”  But  a large  number  of  the  statues 
are  devoted  to  the  Vices,  which  generally  explain  them- 
selves. 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


257 


No  more  spirited  semi-secular  carvings  are  to  be  seen 
in  England  than  the  delightful  row  of  the  “ Beverly 
Minstrels.”  They  stand  on  brackets  round  a column 
in  St.  Mary’s  Church,  Beverly,  and  are  exhibited  as 
singing  and  playing  on  musical  instruments.  They  were 
probably  carved  and  presented  by  the  Minstrels  or 
Waits,  themselves,  or  at  any  rate  at  their  expense,  for 
an  angel  near  by  holds  a tablet  inscribed:  “ This  pyllor 


THE  “ BEVERLY  MINSTRELS  ” 


made  the  meynstyrls.”  These  “ waits  ” were  quite 
an  institution,  being  a kind  of  police  to  go  about  day 
and  night  and  inspect  the  precincts,  announcing  break 
of  day  by  blowing  a horn,  and  calling  the  workmen 
together  by  a similar  signal.  The  figures  are  of  about 
the  period  of  Henry  VII. 

The  general  excellence  of  sculpture  in  Germany  is 
said  to  be  lower  than  that  of  France;  in  fact,  such 
mediaeval  German  sculpture  as  is  specially  fine  is  based 
upon  French  work.  Still,  while  this  statement  holds 


258  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


good  in  a general  way,  there  are  marked  departures, 
and  examples  of  extremely  interesting  and  often  original 
sculpture  in  Germany,  although  until  the  work  of  such 
great  masters  as  Albrecht  Diirer,  Adam  Kraft,  and  Viet 
Stoss,  the  wood  carver,  who  are  much  later,  there  is  not 
as  prolific  a display  of  the  sculptor’s  genius  as  in  France. 

The  figures  on  the  Choir  screen  at  Hildesheim  are 
rather  heavy,  and  decidedly  Romanesque;  but  the  whole 
effect  is  most  delightful.  Some  of  the  heads  have  almost 
Gothic  beauty.  The  screen  is  of  about  1186,  and  the 
figures  are  made  of  stucco;  but  it  is  exceptionally  good 
stucco,  very  different  in  character  from  the  later  work, 
which  Browning  has  designated  as  “ stucco  twiddlings 
everywhere.” 

Much  good  German  sculpture  may  be  seen  in  Nurem- 
berg. The  Schoner  Brunnen,  the  beautiful  fountain,  is 
a delight,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  one  is  not  looking  at 
the  original,  which  was  relegated  to  the  museum  for 
safe  keeping  long  ago.  The  carving,  too,  on  the  Frauen- 
kirche,  and  St.  Sebald’s,  and  on  St.  Lorenz,  is  as  fine  as 
anything  one  will  find  in  Germany.  Another  exception 
stands  out  in  the  memory.  Nothing  is  more  exquisite 
than  the  Bride’s  Door,  at  St.  Sebald’s,  in  Nuremberg; 
the  figures  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins  who  guard 
the  entrance  could  hardly  be  surpassed  in  the  realm 
of  realistic  sculpture,  retaining  at  the  same  time  a just 
proportion  of  monumental  feeling.  They  are  bewitch- 
ing and  dainty,  full  of  grace  not  often  seen  in  German 
work  of  that  period. 


Sculpture  in  Stone 


259 


The  figures  on  the  outside  of  Bamberg  Cathedral  are 
also  as  fine  as  anything  in  France,  and  there  are  some 
striking  examples  at  Naumburg,  but  often  the  figures 
in  German  work  lack  lightness  and  length,  which  are 
such  charming  elements  in  the  French  Gothic  sculptures. 

At  Strasburg  the  Cathedral  is  generally  conceded 
to  be  the  most  interesting  and  ornate  of  the  thirteenth 
century  work  in  Germany,  although,  as  has  been  indi- 
cated, French  influence  is  largely  responsible.  A very 
small  deposit  of  this  influence  escaped  into  the  Nether- 
lands, and  St.  Gudule  in  Brussels  shows  some  good 
carving  in  Gothic  style. 

A gruesome  statue  on  St.  Sebald’s  in  Nuremberg 
represents  the  puritanical  idea  of  “ the  world,”  by 
exhibiting  a good-looking  young  woman,  whose  back 
is  that  of  a corpse;  the  shroud  is  open,  and  the  half 
decomposed  body  is  displayed,  with  snakes  and  toads 
depredating  upon  it. 

Among  the  early  Renaissance  artists  in  Nuremberg, 
was  Hans  Decker,  who  was  named  in  the  Burgher  Lists 
of  1449.  He  may  have  had  influence  upon  the  youth 
of  Adam  Kraft,  whose  great  pyx  in  St.  Lorenz’s  is  known 
to  every  one  who  has  visited  Germany. 

Adam  Kraft  was  born  in  Nuremberg  in  the  early 
fifteenth  century  and  his  work  is  a curious  link  between 
Gothic  and  Renaissance  styles.  His  chief  characteristic 
is  expressed  by  P.  J.  Ree,  who  says:  “ The  essence  of 
his  art  is  best  described  as  a naive  realism  sustained  by 
tender  and  warm  religious  zeal.”  Adam  Kraft  carved 


260  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


the  Stations  of  the  Cross,  to  occupy,  on  the  road  to  St. 
John’s  Cemetery  in  Nuremberg,  the  same  relative  dis- 
tances apart  as  those  of  the  actual  scenes  between 
Pilate’s  house  and  Golgotha.  Easter  Sepulchres  were 
often  enriched  with  very  beautiful  sculptures  by  the 
first  masters.  Adam  Kraft  carved  the  noble  scene  of 
the  Burial  of  Christ  in  St.  John’s  churchyard  in  Nurem- 
berg. 

It  is  curious  that  the  same  mind  and  hand  which  con- 
ceived and  carved  these  short  stumpy  figures,  should 
have  made  the  marvel  of  slim  grace,  the  Tabernacle, 
or  Pyx,  at  St.  Lorenz.  A figure  of  the  artist  kneeling, 
together  with  two  workmen,  one  old  and  one  young, 
supports  the  beautiful  shrine,  which  rears  itself  in 
graduated  stages  to  the  tall  Gothic  roof,  where  it  follows 
the  curve  of  a rib,  and  turns  over  at  the  top  exactly 
like  some  beautiful  clinging  plant  departing  from  its 
support,  and  flowering  into  an  exquisitely  proportioned 
spiral.  It  suggests  a gigantic  crozier.  Before  it  was 
known  what  a slender  metal  core  followed  this  wonderful 
growth,  on  the  inside,  there  was  a tradition  that  Kraft 
had  discovered  “ a wonderful  method  for  softening  and 
moulding  hard  stones.”  The  charming  relief  by  Kraft 
on  the  Weighing  Office  exhibits  quite  another  side  of 
his  genius;  here  three  men  are  engaged  in  weighing  a 
bale  of  goods  in  a pair  of  scales : a charming  arrangement 
of  proportion  naturally  grows  out  of  this  theme,  which 
may  have  been  a survival  in  the  mind  of  the  artist  of  his 
memory  of  the  numerous  tympana  with  the  Judgment 


ST.  LORENZ  CHURCH,  NUREMBERG,  SHOWING  ADAM  KRAFTS 
PYX,  AND  THE  HANGING  MEDALLION  BY  VEIT  STOSS 


Sculpture  in  Stone  261 


of  Michael  weighing  souls.  The  design  is  most  attract- 
ive, and  the  decorative  feeling  is  enhanced  by  two 


RELIEF  BY  ADAM  KRAFT 

coats  of  arms  and  a little  Gothic  tracery  running  across 
the  top.  When  Adam  Kraft  died  in  1508,  the  art  of 
sculpture  practically  ceased  in  Nuremberg. 


CHAPTER  IX 


CARVING  IN  WOOD  AND  IVORY 

If  the  Germans  were  somewhat  less  original  than  the 
French,  English,  and  Italians  in  their  stone  carving,  they 
made  up  for  this  deficiency  by  a very  remarkable  skill 
in  wood  carving.  Being  later,  in  period,  this  art  was 
usually  characterized  by  more  naturalism  than  that  of 
sculpture  in  stone. 

In  Germany  the  art  of  sculpture  in  wood  is  said  to  have 
been  in  full  favour  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century. 
There  are  two  excellent  wooden  monuments,  one  at 
Laach  erected  to  Count  Palatine  Henry  III.,  who  died 
in  1095,  and  another  to  Count  Henry  III.  of  Sayne, 
in  1246.  The  carving  shows  signs  of  the  transition  to 
Gothic  forms.  Large  wooden  crucifixes  were  carved  in 
Germany  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  Byzan- 
tine feeling  is  usual  in  these  figures,  which  are  frequently 
larger  than  life. 

Mediaeval  wood  carving  developed  chiefly  along  the 
line  of-  altar  pieces  and  of  grotesque  adornments  of  choir 
stalls.  Among  the  most  interesting  of  these  are  the 
“ miserere  ” seats,  of  which  we  shall  speak  at  more 
length. 

The  general  methods  of  wood  carving  resemble  some- 

262 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory  263 


what  those  of  stone  carving;  that  is  to  say,  flat  relief, 
round  relief,  and  entirely  disengaged  figures  occur  in 
both,  while  in  both  the  drill  is  used  as  a starting  point 


CARVED  BOX-WOOD  PYX,  14TH  CENTURY 


in  many  forms  of  design.  As  with  the  other  arts,  this 
of  carving  in  wood  emanated  from  the  monastery. 

The  monk  Tutilo,  of  St.  Gall,  was  very  gifted.  The 
old  chronicle  tells  us  that  “ he  was  eloquent,  with  a fine 
voice,  skilful  in  carving,  and  a painter.  A musician, 
like  his  companions,  but  in  all  kinds  of  wind  and  stringed 


264  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


instruments  ...  he  excelled  everybody.  In  building 
and  in  his  other  arts  he  was  eminent.”  Tutilo  was  a 
monk  of  the  ninth  century. 

A celebrated  wood  carving  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
on  a large  scale,  is  the  door  of  the  Church  of  St.  Sabina 
in  Rome.  It  is  divided  into  many  small  panels,  finely 
carved.  These  little  reliefs  are  crowded  with  figures, 
very  spirited  in  action. 

Painted  and  carved  shields  and  hatchments  were 
popular.  The  Italian  artists  made  these  with  great 
refinement.  Sometimes  stucco  was  employed  instead 
of  genuine  carving,  and  occasionally  the  work  was 
embossed  on  leather.  They  were  painted  in  heraldic 
colours,  and  gold,  and  nothing  could  be  more  decorative. 
Even  Giotto  produced  certain  works  of  this  description, 
as  well  as  a carved  crucifix. 

Altar  pieces  were  first  carved  and  painted,  the  back- 
grounds being  gilded.  By  degrees  stucco  for  the  figures 
came  in  to  replace  the  wood:  after  that,  they  were 
gradually  modelled  in  lower  relief,  until  finally  they 
became  painted  pictures  with  slightly  raised  portions, 
and  the  average  Florentine  altar  piece  resulted.  With 
the  advance  in  paincing,  and  the  ability  to  portray  the 
round,  the  necessity  for  carved  details  diminished. 

Orders  from  a great  distance  were  sometimes  sent  to 
the  Florentine  Masters  of  Wood,  — the  choir  stalls  in 
Cambridge,  in  King’s  College  Chapel,  were  executed  by 
them,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Torregiano  alluded  to  them 
as  “ beasts  of  English.” 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


265 


An  early  French  wood  carver  was  Girard  d’ Orleans, 
who,  in  1379,  carved  for  Charles  V.  “ ung  tableau  de 
boys  de  quatre  pieces.’7.  Ruskin  considers  the  choir 
stalls  in  Amiens  the  best  worth  seeing  in  France;  he 
speaks  of  the  “ carpenter’s  work  ” with  admiration, 
for  no  nails  are  used,  nor  is  the  strength  of  glue  relied 
upon;  every  bit  is  true  “ joinery,”  mortised,  and  held 
by  the  skill  and  conscientiousness  of  its  construction. 
Of  later  work  in  wood  it  is  a magnificent  example.  The 
master  joiner,  Arnold  Boulin,  undertook  the  construction 
of  the  stalls  in  1508.  He  engaged  Anton  A vernier,  an 
image  maker,  to  carve  the  statuettes  and  figures  which 
occur  in  the  course  of  the  work.  Another  joiner,  Alex- 
ander Hust,  is  reported  as  working  as  well,  and  in  1511, 
both  he  and  Boulin  travelled  to  Rouen,  to  study  the 
stalls  in  the  cathedral  there.  Two  Franciscan  monks, 
“ expert  and  renowned  in  working  in  wood,”  came  from 
Abbeville  to  give  judgment  and  approval,  their  ex- 
penses being  paid  for  this  purpose. 

Jean  Troupin,  a “ simple  workman  at  the  wages  of 
three  sous  a day,”  was  added  to  the  staff  of  workers 
in  1516,  and  in  one  of  the  stalls  he  has  carved  his  own 
portrait,  with  the  inscription,  “ Jan  Troupin,  God  take 
care  of  thee.”  In  1522  the  entire  work  was  completed, 
and  was  satisfactorily  terminated  on  St.  John’s  day, 
representing  the  entire  labour  of  six  or  eight  men  for 
about  fourteen  years. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  Germany  led  all  countries 
in  the  art  of  wood  carving.  Painting  was  nearly  always 


266  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


allied  to  this  art  in  ecclesiastical  use.  The  sculptured 
forms  were  gilded  and  painted,  and,  in  some  cases, 
might  almost  be  taken  for  figures  in  faience,  so  high 
was  the  polish.  Small  altars,  with  carved  reredos 
and  frontals,  were  very  popular,  both  for  church  and 
closet.  The  style  employed  was  pictorial,  figures  and 
scenes  being  treated  with  great  naturalism.  One  of 
the  famous  makers  of  such  altar  pieces  was  Lucas 
Moser,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  A 
little  later  came  Hans  Schiilein,  and  then  followed 
Freidrich  Herlin,  who  carved  the  fine  altar  in  Rothen- 
burg.  Jorg  Syrlin  of  Ulm  and  his  son  of  the  same  name 
cover  the  latter  half  of  the  century. 

Bavaria  was  the  chief  province  in  which  sculptors 
in  wood  flourished.  The  figures  are  rather  stumpy 
sometimes,  and  the  draperies  rather  heavy  and  lacking 
in  delicate  grace,  but  the  works  are  far  more  numerous 
than  those  of  other  districts,  and  vary  enormously  in  merit. 

Then  followed  the  great  carvers  of  the  early  Renais- 
sance — Adam  Kraft,  and  Veit  Stoss,  contemporaries 
of  Peter  Vischer  and  Albrecht  Diirer,  whom  we  must 
consider  for  a little,  although  they  hardly  can  be  called 
mediaeval  workmen. 

Veit  Stoss  was  born  in  the  early  fifteenth  century, 
in  Nuremberg.  He  went  to  Cracow  when  he  was  about 
thirty  years  of  age,  and  spent  some  years  working  hard. 
He  returned  to  his  native  city,  however,  in  1496,  and 
worked  there  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  A delicate  specimen 
of  his  craft  is  the  Rosenkranztafel,  a wood  carving  in 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


267 


the  Germanic  Museum,  which  exhibits  medallions  in 
relief,  representing  the  Communion  of  Saints,  with  a 
wreath  of  roses  encircling  it.  Around  the  border  of  this 
oblong  composition  there  are  small  square  reliefs,  and 
a Last  Judgment  which  is  full  of  grim  humour  occupies 
the  lower  part  of  the  space.  Among  the  amusing  inci- 
dents represented,  is  that  of  a redeemed  soul,  quite 
naked,  climbing  up  a vine  to  reach  heaven,  in  which 
God  the  Father  is  in  the  act  of  “ receiving  ” Adam  and 
Eve,  shaking  hands  most  sociably!  The  friends  of  this 
aspiring  climber  are  “ boosting  ” him  from  below;  the 
most  deliciously  realistic  proof  that  Stoss  had  no  use 
for  the  theory  of  a winged  hereafter ! 

Veit  Stoss  was  a very  versatile  craftsman.  Besides 
his  wonderful  wood  carvings,  for  which  he  is  chiefly 
noted,  he  was  a bridge-builder,  a stone-mason,  a bronze 
caster,  painter  of  altars,  and  engraver  on  copper!  Like 
all  such  variously  talented  persons,  he  suffered  some- 
what from  restlessness  and  preferred  work  to  peace, 
— but  his  compensation  lay  in  the  varied  joys  of  creative 
works.  His  naturalism  was  marked  in  all  that  he  did: 
a naive  old  chronicler  remarks  that  he  made  some  life- 
sized  coloured  figures  of  Adam  and  Eve,  “ so  fashioned 
that  one  was  afraid  that  they  were  alive!  ” Veit  Stoss 
was  an  interesting  individual.  He  was  not  especially 
moral  in  all  his  ways,  narrowly  escaping  being  executed 
for  forgery;  but  his  brilliancy  as  a technician  was  unsur- 
passed. He  lived  until  1533,  when  he  died  in  Nurem- 
berg as  a very  old  man.  One  of  his  most  delightful 


268  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


achievements  is  the  great  medallion  with  an  open  back- 
ground, which  hangs  in  the  centre  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Lorenz.  It  shows  two  large  and  graceful  figures,  — 
Mary  and  the  Angel  Gabriel,  the  subject  being  the 
Annunciation.  A wreath  of  angels  and  flowers  surrounds 
the  whole,  with  small  medallions  representing  the  seven 
joys  of  the  Virgin.  It  is  a masterly  work,  and  was 
presented  by  Anton  Tucher  in  1518.  Veit  Stoss  was 
the  leading  figure  among  wood  carvers  of  the  Renais- 
sance, although  Albrecht  Durer  combined  this  with  his 
many  accomplishments,  as  well. 

Some  of  the  carvings  in  wood  in  the  chapel  of  Henry 
VII.  at  Westminster,  are  adapted  from  drawings  by 
Albrecht  Durer,  and  are  probably  the  work  of  Germans. 
Two  of  these,  Derrick  van  Grove  and  Giles  van  Castel, 
were  working  at  St.  George’s,  Windsor,  about  the  same 
time. 

The  very  finest  example  of  Nuremberg  carving,  how- 
ever, is  the  famous  wooden  Madonna,  which  has  been 
ascribed  to  Peter  Vischer  the  Younger,  both  by  Herr 
von  Bezold  and  by  Cecil  Headlam.  It  seems  very 
reasonable  after  a study  of  the  other  works  of  this 
remarkable  son  of  Peter  Vischer,  for  there  is  no  other 
carver  of  the  period,  in  all  Nuremberg,  who  could  have 
executed  such  a flawlessly  lovely  figure. 

One  of  the  noted  wood  carvers  in  Spain  in  the  Re- 
naissance, was  Alonso  Cano.  He  was  a native  of  Granada 
and  was  born  in  1601.  His  father  was  a carver  of  “ re- 
tablos,”  and  brought  the  boy  up  to  follow  his  profession. 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory  269 


Cano  was  also  a painter  of  considerable  merit,  but  as 
a sculptor  in  wood  he  was  particularly  successful. 
His  first  conspicuous  work  was  a new  high  altar  for  the 
church  of  Lebrija,  which  came  to  him  on  account  of  the 
death  of  his  father,  who  was  commencing  the  work  in 
1630,  when  his  life  was  suddenly  cut  off.  Alonso  made 
this  altar  so  beautifully,  that  he  was  paid  two  hundred 
and  fifty  ducats  more  than  he  asked!  Columns  and 
cornices  are  arranged  so  as  to  frame  four  excellent 
statues.  These  carvings  have  been  esteemed  so  highly 
that  artists  came  to  study  them  all  the  way  from  Flan- 
ders. The  altar  is  coloured,  like  most  of  the  Spanish 
retablos,  Cano  was  a pugnacious  character,  always 
getting  into  scrapes,  using  his  stiletto,  and  being  obliged 
to  shift  his  residence  on  short  notice.  It  is  remarkable 
that  his  erratic  life  did  not  interfere  with  his  work,  which 
seems  to  have  gone  calmly  on  in  spite  of  domestic  and 
civic  difficulties.  Among  his  works  at  various  places, 
where  his  destiny  took  him,  was  a tabernacle  for  the 
Cathedral  of  Malaga.  He  had  worked  for  some  time  at 
the  designs  for  this  tabernacle,  when  it  was  whispered  to 
him  that  the  Bishop  of  Malaga  intended  to  get  a bargain, 
and  meant  to  beat  him  down  in  his  charges.  So,  packing 
up  his  plans  and  drawings,  and  getting  on  his  mule,  Cano 
observed,  “These  drawings  are  either  to  be  given  away  for 
nothing,  or  else  they  are  to  bring  two  thousand  ducats.” 
The  news  of  his  departure  caused  alarm  among  those  in 
authority,  and  he  was  urged  to  bring  back  the  designs, 
and  receive  his  own  price. 


. 270  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Cano  carved  a life-size  crucifix  for  Queen  Mariana, 
which  she  presented  to  the  Convent  of  Monserrati  at 
Madrid.  Alonso  Cano  entered  the  Church  and  became 
canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Granada.  But  all  his  talents 
had  no  effect  upon  his  final  prosperity:  he  died  in 
extreme  want  in  1667,  the  Cathedral  records  showing 
that  he  was  the  recipient  of  charity,  five  hundred  reals 
being  voted  to  “ the  canon  Cano,  being  sick  and  very 
poor,  and  without  means  to  pay  the  doctor.”  Another 
record  mentions  the  purchase  of  “ poultry  and  sweet- 
meats ” also  for  him. 

• Cano  made  one  piece  of  sculpture  in  marble,  a guardian 
angel  for  the  Convent  at  Granada,  but  this  no  longer 
exists.  Some  of  his  architectural  drawings  are  pre- 
served in  the  Louvre.  Ford  says  that  his  St.  Francesco 
in  Toledo  is  “ a masterpiece  of  cadaverous  ecstatic 
sentiment.” 

The  grotesques  which  played  so  large  a part  in  church 
art  are  bewailed  by  St.  Bernard:  “ What  is  the  use,” 
he  asks,  “ of  those  absurd  monstrosities  displayed  in  the 
cloisters  before  the  reading  monks?  . . . Why  are  un- 
clean monkeys  and  savage  lions,  and  monstrous  cen- 
taurs and  semi-men,  and  spotted  tigers,  and  fighting 
soldiers,  and  pipe-playing  hunters,  represented?  ” Then 
St.  Bernard  inadvertently  admits  the  charm  of  all  these 
grotesques,  by  adding:  “ The  variety  of  form  is  every- 
where so  great,  that  marbles  are  more  pleasant  reading 
than  manuscripts,  and  the  whole  day  is  spent  in  looking 
at  them  instead  of  in  meditating  on  the  law  of  God.” 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


271 


St.  Bernard  concludes  with  the  universal  argument: 
“ Oh,  God,  if  one  is  not  ashamed  of  these  puerilities, 
why  does  not  one  at  least  spare  the  expense?  ” A 
hundred  years  later,  the  clergy  were  censured  by  the 
Prior  de  Coinsi  for  allowing  “ wild  cats  and  lions  ” to 
stand  equal  with  the  saints. 

The  real  test  of  a fine  grotesque  — a genuine  Gothic 


MISERERE  STALL;  AN  ARTISAN  AT  WORK 


monster  — is,  that  he  shall,  in  spite  of  his  monstrosity, 
retain  a certain  anatomical  consistency:  it  must  be 
conceivable  that  the  animal  organism  could  have 
developed  along  these  lines.  In  the  thirteenth  century, 
this  is  always  possible;  but  in  much  later  times,  and  in 
the  Renaissance,  the  grotesques  simply  became  comic 
and  degraded,  and  lacking  in  humour:  in  a later 
chapter  this  idea  will  be  developed  further. 

The  art  of  the  choir  stalls  and  miserere  seats  was  a 
natural  ebullition  of  the  humourous  instinct,  which  had 
so  little  opportunity  for  exploiting  itself  in  monastic 
seclusion.  The  joke  was  hidden  away,  under  the  seat, 


272  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


out  of  sight  of  visitors,  or  laymen : inconspicuous, 
but  furtively  entertaining.  There  was  no  self-conscious- 
ness in  its  elaboration,  it  was  often  executed  for  pure 
love  of  fun  and  whittling;  and  for  that  very  reason  em- 
bodies all  the  most  attractive  qualities  of  its  art.  There 
was  no  covert  intention  to  produce  a genre  history  of 
contemporary  life  and  manners,  as  has  sometimes  been 
claimed.  These  things  were  accidentally  introduced 
in  the  work,  but  the  carvers  had  no  idea  of  ministering 
to  this  or  any  other  educational  theory.  Like  all  light- 
hearted expression  of  personality,  the  miserere  stalls 
have  proved  of  inestimable  worth  to  the  world  of  art, 
as  a record  of  human  skill  and  genial  mirth. 

A good  many  of  the  vices  of  the  times  were  portrayed 
on  the  miserere  seats.  The  “ backbiter  ” is  frequently 
seen,  in  most  unlovely  form,  and  two  persons  gossiping 
with  an  “ unseen  witness  ” in  the  shape  of  an  avenging 
friend,  looking  on  and  waiting  for  his  opportunity  to 
strike!  Gluttons  and  misers  are  always  accompanied 
by  familiar  devils,  who  prod  and  goad  them  into  such 
sin  as  shall  make  them  their  prey  at  the  last.  Among 
favourite  subjects  on  miserere  seats  is  the  “ alewife.” 
No  wonder  ale  drinking  proved  so  large  a factor  in  the 
jokes  of  the  fraternity,  for  the  rate  at  which  it  was  con  • 
sumed,  in  this  age  when  it  took  the  place  of  both  tea  and 
coffee,  was  enormous.  The  inmates  of  St.  Cross  Hospital, 
Winchester,  who  were  alluded  to  as  “ impotents,” 
received  daily  one  gallon  of  beer  each,  with  two  extra 
quarts  on  holidays!  If  this  were  the  allowance  of 


MISERERE  STALL,  ELY;  NOAH  AND  THE  DOVE 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory  273 

pensioners,  what  must  have  been  the  proportion  among 
the  well-to-do?  In  1558  there  is  a record  of  a dishonest 
beer  seller  who  gave  only  a pint  for  a penny  drink,  instead 
of  the  customary  quart!  The  subject  of  the  ale  wife 
who  had  cheated  her  customers,  being  dragged  to  hell 
by  demons,  is  often  treated  by  the  carvers  with  much 
relish,  in  the  sacred  precincts  of  the  church  choir! 


MISERERE  STALL;  THE  FATE  OF  THE  ALE-WIFE 


At  Ludlow  there  is  a relief  which  shows  the  unlucky 
lady  carried  on  the  back  of  a demon,  hanging  with  her 
head  upside  down,  while  a smiling  “ recording  imp” 
is  making  notes  in  a scroll  concerning  her ! In  one  of  the 
Chester  Mysteries,  the  Ale  Wife  is  made  to  confess  her 
own  shortcomings: 

“ Some  time  I was  a taverner, 

A gentle  gossip  and  a tapster, 

Of  wine  and  ale  a trusty  brewer, 

Which  woe  hath  me  wrought. 


274  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Of  cans  I kept  no  true  measure, 

My  cups  I sold  at  my  pleasure, 

Deceiving  many  a creature, 

Though  my  ale  were  nought!  ” 

There  is  a curious  miserere  in  Holderness  representing 
a nun  between  two  hares : she  is  looking  out  with  a smile, 
and  winking ! 

At  Ripon  the  stalls  show  Jonah  being  thrown  to  the 
whale,  aftd  the  same  Jonah  being  subsequently  relin- 
quished by  the  sea  monster.  The  whale  is  represented 
by  a large  bland  smiling  head,  with  gaping  jaws,  oc- 
curring in  the  midst  of  the  water,  and  Jonah  takes  the 
usual  “ header  ” familiar  in  mediaeval  art,  wherever 
this  episode  is  rendered. 

A popular  treatment  of  the  stall  was  the  foliate 
mask;  stems  issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  mask  and 
developing  into  leaves  and  vines.  This  is  an  entirely 
foolish  and  unlovely  design:  in  most  cases  it  is  quite 
lacking  in  real  humour,  and  makes  one  think  more  of 
the  senseless  Roman  grotesques  and  those  of  the  Renais- 
sance. The  mediaeval  quaintness  is  missing. 

At  Beverly  a woman  is  represented  beating  a man, 
while  a dog  is  helping  himself  out  of  the  soup  cauldron. 
The  misereres  at  Beverly  date  from  about  1520. 

Animals  as  musicians,  too,  were  often  introduced,  — 
pigs  playing  on  viols,  or  pipes,  an  ass  performing  on  the 
harp,  and  similar  eccentricities  may  be  found  in  numerous 
places,  while  Reynard  the  Fox  in  all  his  forms  abounds. 

The  choir  stalls  at  Lincoln  exhibit  beautiful  carving 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


275 


and  design:  they  date  from  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  were  given  by  the  treasurer,  John  de  Welburne. 
There  are  many  delightful  miserere  seats,  many  of  the 
selections  in  this  case  being  from  the  legend  of  Reynard 
the  Fox. 

Abbot  Islip  of  Westminster  was  a great  personality, 
influencing  his  times  and  the  place  where  his  genius  ex- 
pressed itself.  He  was  very  constant  and  thorough  in 
repairing  and  restoring  at  the  Abbey,  and  under  his 
direction  much  fine  painting  and  illuminating  were 
accomplished.  The  special  periods  of  artistic  activity 
in  most  of  the  cathedrals  may  be  traced  to  the  personal 
influence  of  some  cultured  ecclesiastic. 

A very  beautiful  specimen  of  English  carving  is  the 
curious  oak  chest  at  York  Cathedral,  on  which  St. 
George  fighting  the  dragon  is  well  rendered.  However, 
the  termination  of  the  story  differs  from  that  usually 
associated  with  this  legend,  for  the  lady  leads  off  the 
subdued  dragon  in  a leash,  and  the  very  abject  crawl 
of  the  creature  is  depicted  with  much  humour. 

Mediaeval  ivory  carving  practically  commenced  with 
the  fourth  century;  in  speaking  of  the  tools  employed, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  they  corresponded  to  those  used  by 
sculptors  in  wood.  It  is  generally  believed  by  authori- 
ties that  there  was  some  method  by  which  ivory  could 
be  taken  from  the  whole  rounded  surface  of  the  tusk, 
and  then,  by  soaking,  or  other  treatment,  rendered  suffi- 
ciently malleable  to  be  bent  out  into  a large  flat  sheet: 
for  some  of  the  large  mediaeval  ivories  are  much  wider 


I 


276  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

than  the  diameter  of  any  known  possible  tusk.  There 
are  recipes  in  the  early  treatises  which  tell  how  to  soften 
the  ivory  that  it  may  be  more  easily  sculptured : in  the 
Mappae  Clavicula,  in  the  twelfth  century,  directions  are 
given  for  preparing  a bath  in  which  to  steep  ivory,  in 
order  to  make  it  soft.  In  the  Sloane  MS.  occurs  another 
recipe  for  the  same  purpose. 

Ahab’s  “ ivory  house  which  he  made  ” must  have 
been  either  covered  with  a very  thin  veneer,  or  else 
the  ivory  was  used  as  inlay,  which  was  often  the  case, 
in  connection  with  ebony.  Ezekiel  alludes  to  this  com- 
bination. Ivory  and  gold  were  used  by  the  Greeks  in  their 
famous  Chryselephantine  statues,  in  which  cases  thin 
plates  of  ivory  formed  the  face,  hands,  and  exposed 
parts,  the  rest  being  overlaid  with  gold.  This  art  origi- 
nated with  the  brothers  Dipoenus  and  Scillis,  about 
570  b.  c.,  in  Crete. 

“ In  sculpturing  ivory,”  says  Theophilus,  “ first  form 
a tablet  of  the  magnitude  you  may  wish,  and  super- 
posing chalk,  portray  with  a lead  the  figures  according 
to  your  pleasure,  and  with  a pointed  instrument  mark 
the  lines  that  they  may  appear:  then  carve  the  grounds 
as  deeply  as  you  wish  with  different  instruments,  and 
sculp  the  figures  or  other  things  you  please,  according 
to  your  invention  and  skill/ ’ He  tells  how  to  make  a 
knife  handle  with  open  work  carvings,  through  which 
a gold  ground  is  visible:  and  extremely  handsome 
would  such  a knife  be  when  completed,  according  to 
Theophilus’  directions.  He.  also  tells  how  to  redden 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


277 


ivory.  “ There  is  likewise  an  herb  called  1 rubrica/ 
the  root  of  which  is  long,  slender,  and  of  a red  colour; 
this  being  dug  up  is  dried  in  the  sun  and  is  pounded  in  a 
mortar  with  the  pestle,  and  so  being  scraped  into  a pot, 
and  a lye  poured  over  it,  is  then  cooked.  In  this,  when 
it  has  well  boiled,  the  bone  of  the  elephant  or  fish  or  stag, 
being  placed,  is  made  red.”  Mediaeval  chessmen  were 
made  in  ivory:  very  likely  the  need  for  a red  stain  was 
felt  chiefly  for  such  pieces. 

The  celebrated  Consular  Diptychs  date  from  the 
fourth  century  onwards.  It  was  the  custom  for  Consuls 
to  present  to  senators  and  other  officials  these  little 
folding  ivory  tablets,  and  the  adornment  of  Diptychs 
was  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  ivory  worker.  Some 
of  them  were  quite  ambitious  in  size;  in  the  British 
Museum  is  a Diptych  measuring  over  sixteen  inches 
by  five:  the  tusk  from  which  this  was  made  must  have 
been  almost  unique  in  size.  It  is  a Byzantine  work, 
and  has  the  figure  of  an  angel  carved  upon  it. 

Gregory  the  Great  sent  a gift  of  ivory  to  Theodolinda, 
Queen  of  the  Lombards,  in  600.  This  is  decorated  with 
three  figures,  and  is  a most  interesting  diptych. 

The  earliest  diptych,  however,  is  of  the  year  406, 
known  as  the  Diptych  of  Probus,  on  which  may  be 
seen  a bas-relief  portrait  of  Emperor  Honorius.  On 
the  Diptych  of  Philoxenus  is  a Greek  verse  signifying, 
“ I,  Philoxenus,  being  Consul,  offer  this  present  to  the 
wise  Senate.”  An  interesting  diptych,  sixteen  inches 
by  six,  is  inscribed,  “ Flavius  Strategius  Apius,  illus- 


278  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


trious  man,  count  of  the  most  fervent  servants,  and  con- 
sul in  ordinary.”  This  consul  was  invested  in  539; 
the  work  was  made  in  Rome,  but  it  is  the  property  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Orviedo  in  Spain,  where  it  is  regarded 
as  a priceless  treasure. 

Claudian,  in  the  fourth  century,  alludes  to  diptychs, 
speaking  of  “ huge  tusks  cut  with  steel  into  tablets  and 
gleaming  with  gold,  engraved  with  the  illustrious  name 
of  the  Consul,  circulated  among  great  and  small,  and 
the  great  wonder  of  the  Indies,  the  elephant,  wanders 
about  in  tuskless  shame!  ” In  Magaster,  a city  which 
according  to  Marco  Polo,  was  governed  by  “ four  old 
men,”  they  sold  u vast  quantities  of  elephants’  teeth.” 

Rabanus,  a follower  of  Alcuin,  born  in  776,  was  the 
author  of  an  interesting  encyclopaedia,  rejoicing  in  the 
comprehensive  title,  “ On  the  Universe.”  This  work 
is  in  twenty-two  books,  which  are  supposed  to  cover  all 
possible  subjects  upon  which  a reader  might  be  curious. 
. . . The  seventeenth  book  is  on  “ the  dust  and  soil  of  the 
earth,”  under  which  uninviting  head  he  includes  all 
kinds  of  stones,  common  and  precious;  salt,  flint,  sand, 
lime,  jet,  asbestos,  and  the  Persian  moonstone,  of  whose 
brightness  he  claims  that  it  “ waxes  and  wanes  with  the 
moon.”  Later  he  devotes  some  space  to  pearls,  crystals, 
and  glass.  Metals  follow,  and  marbles  and  ivory,  though 
why  the  latter  should  be  classed  among  minerals  we 
shall  never  understand. 

The  Roman  diptychs  were  often  used  as  after-dinner 
gifts  to  distinguished  guests.  They  were  presented  on 


IVORY 


TABERNACLE, 


RAVENNA 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


279 


various  occasions.  In  the  Epistles  of  Symmachus,  the 
writer  says:  “ To  my  Lord  and  Prince  I sent  a diptych 
edged  with  gold.  ,1  presented  other  friends  also  with 
these  ivory  note  books.” 

While  elephant’s  tusks  provided  ivory  for  the  southern 
races,  the  more  northern  peoples  used  the  walrus  and 
narwhale  tusks.  In  Germany  this  was  often  the  case. 
The  fabulous  unicorn’s  horn,  which  is  so  often  alluded  to 
in  early  literature,  was  undoubtedly  from  the  narwhale, 
although  its  possessor  always  supposed  that  he  had 
secured  the  more  remarkable  horn  which  was  said  to 
decorate  the  unicorn. 

Triptychs  followed  diptychs  in  natural  sequence. 
These,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  were  usually  of  a devotional 
character,  although  sometimes  secular  subjects  occur. 
Letters  were  sometimes  written  on  ivory  tablets,  which 
were  supposed  to  be  again  used  in  forwarding  a reply. 
St.  Augustine  apologizes  for  writing  on  parchment, 
explaining,  “ My  ivory  tablets  I sent  with  letters  to  your 
uncle;  if  you  have  any  of  my  tablets,  please  send  them 
in  case  of  similar  emergencies.”  Tablets  fitted  with 
wax  linings  were  used  also  in  schools,  as  children  now 
use  slates. 

Ivory  diptychs  were  fashionable  gifts  and  keepsakes 
in  the  later  Roman  imperial  days.  They  took  the  place 
which  had  been  occupied  in  earlier  days  by  illuminated 
books,  such  as  were  produced  by  Lala  of  Cyzicus,  of 
whom  mention  will  be  made  in  connection  with  book 
illuminators. 


280  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


After  the  triptychs  came  sets  of  five  leaves,  hinged 
together;  sometimes  these  were  arranged  in  groups  of 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


281 


four  around  a central  plaque.  Often  they  were  intended 
to  be  used  as  book  covers.  Occasionally  the  five  leaves 
were  made  up  of  classical  ivories  which  had  been  altered 
in  such  a way  that  they  now  had  Christian  significance. 
The  beautiful  diptych  in  the  Bargello,  representing  Adam 
in  the  Earthly  Paradise,  may  easily  have  been  originally 
intended  for  Orpheus,  especially  since  Eve  is  absent! 
The  treatment  is  rather  classical,  and  was  probably 
adapted  to  its  later  name.  Some  diptychs  which  were 
used  afterwards  for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  show  signs 
of  having  had  the  Consular  inscription  erased,  and  the 
wax  removed,  while  Christian  sentiments  were  written 
or  incised  within  the  book  itself.  Parts  of  the  service 
were  also  occasionally  transcribed  on  diptychs.  In 
Milan  the  Rites  contain  these  passages:  “ The  lesson 
ended,  a scholar,  vested  in  a surplice,  takes  the  ivory 
tablets  from  the  altar  or  ambo,  and  ascends  the  pulpit;  ” 
and  in  another  place  a similar  allusion  occurs:  “When 
the  Deacon  chants  the  Alleluia,  the  key  bearer  for  the 
week  hands  the  ivory  tablets  to  him  at  the  exit  of  the 
choir.” 

Anastatius,  in  his  Life  of  Pope  Agatho,  tells  of  a form 
of  posthumous  excommunication  which  was  sometimes 
practised:  “They  took  away  from  the  diptychs  . . . 
wherever  it  could  be  done,  the  names  and  figures  of  these 
patriarchs,  Cyrus,  Sergius,  Paul,  Pyrrhus,  and  Peter, 
through  whom  error  had  been  brought  among  the  ortho- 
dox/? 

Among  ivory  carvings  in  Carlovingian  times  may  be 


282  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


cited  a casket  with  ornamental  colonettes  sent  by  Egin- 
hard  to  his  son.  In  823,  Louis  le  Debonaire  owned  a 
statuette,  a diptych,  and  a coffer,  while  in  845  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  placed  an  order  for  ivory  book  covers, 
for  the  works  of  St.  Jerome,  a Lectionary,  and  other  works. 

The  largest  and  best  known  ivory  carving  of  the  middle 
ages  is  the  throne  of  Maximian,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna. 
This  entire  chair,  with  an  arched  back  and  arms,  is 
composed  of  ivory  in  intricately  carved  plaques.  It  is 
considerably  over  three  feet  in  height,  and  is  a superb 
example  of  the  best  art  of  the  sixth  century.  Photo- 
graphs and  reproductions  of  it  may  be  seen  in  most  works 
dealing  with  this  subject.  Scenes  from  Scripture  are 
set  all  over  it,  divided  by  charming  meanders  of  deeply 
cut  vine  motives.  Some  authorities  consider  the  figures 
inferior  to  the  other  decorations:  of  course  in  any  de- 
lineation of  the  human  form,  the  archaic  element  is 
more  keenly  felt  than  when  it  appears  in  foliate  forms 
or  conventional  patterns.  Diptychs  being  often  taken  in 
considerable  numbers  and  set  into  large  works  of  ivory, 
has  led  some  authorities  to  suppose  that  the  Ravenna 
throne  was  made  of  such  a collection;  but  this  is  contra- 
dicted by  Passeri  in  1759,  who  alludes  to  the  panels  in 
the  following  terms:  “They  might  readily  be  taken 
by  the  ignorant  for  diptychs.  . . . This  they  are  not, 
for  they  cannot  be  taken  from  the  consular  diptychs 
which  had  their  own  ornamentation,  referring  to  the 
consulate  and  the  insignia,  differing  from  the  sculpture 
destined  for  other  purposes.  Hence  they  are  obviously 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


283 


mistaken  who  count  certain  tablets  as  diptychs  which 
have  no  ascription  to  any  consul,  but  represent  the 
Muses,  Bacchantes,  or  Gods.  These  seem  to  me  to  have 
been  book  covers.”  Probably  the  selected  form  of  an 
upright  tablet  for  the  majority  of  ivory  carvings  is 
based  on  economic  principles:  the  best  use  of  the  most 
surface  from  any  square  block  of  material  is  to  cut 
it  in  thin  slices.  In  their  architecture  the  southern 
mediaeval  builders  so  treated  stone,  building  a sub- 
structure of  brick  and  laying  a slab  or  veneer  of  the  more 
costly  material  on  its  surface:  with  ivory  this  same 
principle  was  followed,  and  the  shape  of  the  tusk,  being 
long  and  narrow,  naturally  determined  the  form  of  the 
resulting  tablets. 

The  Throne  of  Ivan  III.  in  Moscow  and  that  of  St. 
Peter  in  Rome  are  also  magnificent  monuments  of  this 
art.  Ivory  caskets  were  the  chief  manifestation  of  taste 
in  that  medium,  during  the  period  of  transition  from 
the  eighth  century  until  the  revival  of  Byzantine  skill 
in  the  tenth  century.  This  form  of  sculpture  was  at  its 
best  at  a time  when  stone  sculpture  was  on  the  decline. 

There  is  a fascinating  book  cover  in  Ravenna  which 
is  a good  example  of  sixth  century  work  of  various  kinds. 
In  the  centre,  Christ  is  seen,  enthroned  under  a kind  of 
palmetto  canopy;  above  him,  on  a long  panel,  are  two 
flying  angels  displaying  a cross  set  in  a wreath;  at 
either  end  stand  little  squat  figures,  with  balls  and 
crosses  in  their  hands.  Scenes  from  the  miracles  of 
Our  Lord  occupy  the  two  side  panels,  which  are  sub- 


284  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


divided  so  that  there  are  four  scenes  in  all;  they  are  so 
quaint  as  to  be  really  grotesque,  but  have  a certain  blunt 
charm  which  is  enhanced  by  the  creamy  lumpiness  of  the 
material  in  which  they  are  rendered.  The  healing  of  the 
blind,  raising  of  the  dead,  and  the  command  to  the  man 
by  the  pool  to  take  up  his  bed  and  walk,  are  accurately 
represented;  the  bed  in  this  instance  is  a form  of  couch 
with  a wooden  frame  and  mattress,  the  carrying  of  which 
would  necessitate  an  unusual  amount  of  strength  on  the 
part  of  even  a strong,  well  man.  One  of  the  most  naive 
of  these  panels  of  the  miracles  is  the  curing  of  “ one 
possessed:”  the  boy  is  tied  with  cords  by  the  wrists 
and  ankles,  while,  at  the  touch  of  the  Master,  a little 
demon  is  seen  issuing  from  ihe  top  of  the  head  of  the 
sufferer,  waving  its  arms  proudly  to  celebrate  its  free- 
dom ! Underneath  is  a small  scene  of  the  three  Children 
in  the  Fiery  Furnace;  they  look  as  if  they  were  present- 
ing a vaudeville  turn,  being  spirited  in  action,  and  very 
dramatic.  Below  all,  is  a masterly  panel  of  Jonah  and 
the  whale,  — an  old  favourite,  frequently  appearing  in 
mediaeval  art.  The  whale,  positively  smiling  and  sport- 
ive, eagerly  awaits  his  prey  at  the  right.  Jonah  is 
making  a graceful  dive  from  the  ship,  apparently  with 
an  effort  to  land  in  the  very  jaws  of  the  whale.  At  the 
opposite  side,  the  whale,  having  coughed  up  his  victim, 
looks  disappointed,  while  Jonah,  in  an  attitude  of 
lassitude  suggestive  of  sea-sickness,  reclines  on  a bank; 
an  angel,  with  one  finger  lifted  as  if  in  reproach,  is 
hurrying  towards  him. 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory  285 


An  ingenuous  ivory  carving  of  the  ninth  century  in 
Carlovingian  style  is  a book  cover  on  which  is  depicted 
the  finding  of  St.  Gall,  by  tame  bears  in  the  wilderness. 
These  bears,  walking  decorously  on  their  hind  legs,  are 
figured  as  carrying  bread  to  the  hungry  saint : one  holds 
a long  French  loaf  of  a familiar  pattern,  and  the  other 
a breakfast  roll! 

Bernward  of  Hildesheim  had  a branch  for  ivory 
carving  in  his  celebrated  academy,  to  which  allusion 
has  been  made. 

Ivory  drinking  horns  were  among  the  most  beautiful 
and  ornate  examples  of  secular  ivories.  They  were 
called  Oliphants,  because  the  tusks  of  elephants  were 
chiefly  used  in  their  manufacture.  In  1515  the  Earl 
of  Ormonde  leaves  in  his  will  “ a little  white  horn  of 
ivory  garnished  at  both  ends  with  gold,”  and  in  St.  Paul's 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  there  is  mention  of  “ a great 
horn  of  ivory  engraved  with  beasts  and  birds.”  The 
Horn  of  Ulphas  at  York  is  an  example  of  the  great  drink- 
ing horns  from  which  the  Saxons  and  Danes,  in  early 
days,  drank  in  token  of  transfer  of  lands;  as  we  are  told 
by  an  old  chronicler,  “ When  he  gave  the  horn  that  was 
to  convey  his  estate,  he  filled  it  with  wine,  and  went 
on  his  knees  before  the  altar  ...  so  that  he  drank  it 
off  in  testimony  that  thereby  he  gave  them  his  lands.” 
This  horn  was  given  by  Ulphas  to  the  Cathedral  with 
certain  lands,  a little  before  the  Conquest,  and  placed 
by  him  on  the  altar. 

Interesting  ivories  are  often  the  pastoral  staves 


286  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


carried  by  bishops.  That  of  Otho  Bishop  of  Hildesheim 
in  1260  is  inscribed  in  the  various  parts:  “ Persuade 


PASTORAL  STAFF;  IVORY,  GERMAN,  12tH  CENTURY 


by  the  lower  part;  rule  by  the  middle;  and  correct  by 
the  point.”  These  were  apparently  the  symbolic  func- 
tions of  the  crozier.  The  French  Gothic  ivory  croziers 
are  perhaps  more  beautiful  than  others,  the  little  figures 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory  287 


standing  in  the  carved  volutes  being  especially  delicate 
and  graceful. 

Before  a mediaeval  bishop  could  perform  mass  he  was 
enveloped  in  a wrapper,  and  his  hair  was  combed 
“ respectfully  and  lightly  ” (no  tugging!)  by  the  deacon. 
This  being  a part  of  the  regular  ceremonial,  special 
carved  combs  of  ivory,  known  as  Liturgical  Combs,  were 
used.  Many  of  them  remain  in  collections,  and  they  are 
often  ornamented  in  the  most  delightful  way,  with  little 
processions  and  Scriptural  scenes  in  bas-relief.  In  the 
Regalia  of  England,  there  was  mentioned  among  things 
destroyed  in  1649,  “ One  old  comb  of  horn,  worth  noth- 
ing.” According  to  Davenport,  this  may  have  been 
the  comb  used  in  smoothing  the  king's  hair  on  the 
occasion  of  a Coronation. 

The  rich  pulpit  at  Aix  la  Chapelle  is  covered  with 
plates  of  gold  set  with  stones  and  ivory  carvings;  these 
are  very  fine.  It  was  given  to  the  cathedral  by  the 
Emperor  Henry  II.  The  inscription  may  be  thus 
translated:  “Artfully  brightened  in  gold  and  precious 
stones,  this  pulpit  is  here  dedicated  by  King  Henry 
with  reverence,  desirous  of  celestial  glory:  richly  it  is 
decorated  with  his  own  treasures,  for  you,  most  Holy 
Virgin,  in  order  that  you  may  obtain  the  highest  gain 
as  a future  reward  for  him.”  The  sentiment  is  not 
entirely  disinterested;  but  are  not  motives  generally 
mixed?  St.  Bernard  preached  a Crusade  from  this  pulpit 
in  1146.  The  ivory  carvings  are  very  ancient,  and  re- 
markably fine,  representing  figures  from  the  Greek  myths. 


288  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Ivory  handles  were  usual  for  the  fly-fan,  or  flabellum, 
used  at  the  altar,  to  keep  flies  and  other  insects  away 
from  the  Elements.  One  entry  in  an  inventory  in  1429 
might  be  confusing  if  one  did  not  know  of  this  custom: 
the  article  is  mentioned  as  “ one  muscifugimn  de  pecock” 
meaning  a fly-fan  of  peacock’s  feathers ! 

Small  round  ivory  boxes  elaborately  sculptured  were 
used  both  for  Reserving  the  Host  and  for  containing 
relics.  In  the  inventory  of  the  Church  of  St.  Mary  Hill, 
London,  was  mentioned,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  “ a 
lytill  yvory  cofyr  with  relyks.”  At  Durham,  in  1383, 
there  is  an  account  of  an  “ ivory  casket  conteining  a 
vestment  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,”  and  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  in  the  same  collection,  was  11  a tooth  of  St. 
Gendulphus,  good  for  the  Falling  Sickness,  in  a small 
ivory  pyx.” 

Ivory  mirror  backs  lent  themselves  well  to  decora- 
tions of  a more  secular  nature:  these  are  often  carved 
with  the  Siege  of  the  Castle  of  Love,  and  with  scenes 
from  the  old  Romances;  tournaments  were  very  popular, 
with  ladies  in  balconies  above  pelting  the  heroes  with 
roses  as  large  as  themselves,  and  the  tutor  Aristotle 
“ playing  horse  ” was  a great  favourite.  Little  elope- 
ments on  horseback  were  very  much  liked,  too,  as  sub- 
jects; sometimes  rows  of  heroes  on  steeds  appear,  stand- 
ing under  windows,  from  which,  in  a most  wholesale  way, 
whole  nunneries  or  boarding-schools  seem  to  be  descend- 
ing to  fly  with  them.  One  of  these  mirrors  shows  Huon 
of  Bordeaux  playing  at  chess  with  the  king’s  daughter: 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


289 


another  represents  a castle,  which  occupies  the  upper 
centre  of  the  circle,  and  under  the  window  is  a draw- 
bridge, across  which  passes  a procession  of  mounted 


IVORY  MIRROR  CASE;  EARLY  14TH  CENTURY 


knights.  One  of  these  has  paused,  and,  standing  balanc- 
ing himself  in  a most  precarious  way  on  the  pommels 
of  his  saddle,  is  assisting  a lady  to  descend  from  a window. 
Below  are  seen  others,  or  perhaps  the  same  lovers, 
in  a later  stage  of  the  game,  escaping  in  a boat.  At  the 


290  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


windows  are  the  heads  of  other  ladies  awaiting  their 
turn  to  be  carried  off. 


An  ivory  chest  of  simple  square  shape,  once  the  prop- 


IVORY  MIRROR  CASE,  1340 


erty  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bowie,  is  given  in  detail  by  Carter 
in  the  Ancient  Specimens,  and  is  as  interesting  an 
example  of  allegorical  romance  as  can  be  imagined. 
Observe  the  attitude  of  the  knight  who  has  laid  his  sword 
across  a chasm  in  order  to  use  it  as  a bridge.  He  is  pro- 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


291 


ceeding  on  all  fours,  with  unbent  knees,  right  up  the 
sharp  edge  of  the  blade ! 

Among  small  box  shrines  which  soon  developed  in 
Christian  times  from  the  Consular  diptychs  is  one, 
in  the  inventory  of  Roger  de  Mortimer,  “ a lyttle  long 
box  of  yvory,  with  an  ymage  of  Our  ladye  therein 
closed/7 

The  differences  in  expression  between  French,  Eng- 
lish, and  German  ivory  carvings  is  quite  interesting. 
The  French  faces  and  figures  have  always  a piquancy 
of  action : the  nose  is  a little  retroussee  and  the  eyelids 
long.  The  German  shows  more  solidity  of  person,  less 
transitoriness  and  lightness  about  the  figure,  and  the  nose 
is  blunter.  The  English  carvings  are  often  spirited,  so  as 
to  be  almost  grotesque  in  their  strenuousness,  and  the 
tool-mark  is  visible,  giving  ruggedness  and  interest. 

Nothing  could  be  more  exquisite  than  the  Gothic 
shrines  in  ivory  made  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but 
descriptions,  unless  accompanied  by  illustrations,  could 
give  little  idea  of  their  individual  charm,  for  the  subject 
is  usually  the  same:  the  Virgin  and  child,  in  the  central 
portion  of  the  triptych,  while  scenes  from  the  Passion 
occupy  the  spaces  on  either  side,  in  the  wings. 

Statuettes  in  the  round  were  rare  in  early  Christian 
times:  one  of  the  Good  Shepherd  in  the  Basilewski 
collection  is  almost  unique,  but  pyxes  in  cylindrical 
form  were  made,  the  sculpture  on  them  being  in  relief. 
In  small  ivory  statuettes  it  was  necessary  to  follow  the 
natural  curve  of  the  tusk  in  carving  the  figure,  hence 


292  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


the  usual  twisted,  and  sometimes  almost  contorted 
forms  often  seen  in  these  specimens.  Later,  this  peculi- 
arity was  copied  in  stone,  unconsciously,  simply  be- 
cause the  style  had  become  customary.  One  of  the  most 
charming  little  groups  of  figures  in  ivory  is  in  the  Louvre, 
the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin.  The  two  central  figures 
are  flanked  by  delightful  jocular  little  angels,  who  have 
that  characteristic  close-lipped,  cat-like  smile,  which 
is  a regular  feature  in  all  French  sculpture  of  the  Gothic 
type.  In  a little  triptych  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
now  in  London,  there  is  the  rather  unusual  scene  of 
Joseph,  sitting  opposite  the  Virgin,  and  holding  the 
Infant  in  his  arms. 

Among  the  few  names  of  mediaeval  ivory  carvers 
known,  are  Henry  de  Gres,  in  1391,  Heliot,  1390,  and 
Henry  de  Senlis,  in  1484.  Heliot  is  recorded  as  having 
produced  for  Philip  the  Bold  “ two  large  ivory  tablets 
with  images,  one  of  which  is  the  . . . life  of  Monsieur 
St.  John  Baptist.”  This  polite  description  occurs  in 
the  Accounts  of  Amiot  Arnaut,  in  1392. 

A curious  freak  of  the  Gothic  period  was  the  making 
of  ivory  statuettes  of  the  Virgin,  which  opened  down 
the  centre  (like  the  Iron  Maiden  of  Nuremberg),  and 
disclosed  within  a series  of  Scriptural  scenes  sculptured 
on  the  back  and  on  both  sides.  These  images  were 
called  Vierges  Ouvrantes,  and  were  decidedly  more 
curious  than  beautiful. 

In  the  British  Museum  is  a specimen  of  northern  work, 
a basket  cut  out  from  the  bone  of  a whale:  it  is  Norse 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


293 


in  workmanship,  and  there  is  a Runic  inscription  about 
the  border,  which  has  been  thus  translated: 

“ The  whale’s  bones  from  the  fishes’  flood 
I lifted  on  Fergen  Hill: 

He  was  dashed  to  death  in  his  gambols 
And  aground  he  swam  in  the  shallows.” 


CHESSMAN  FROM  LEWIS 


Fergen  Hill  refers  to  an  eminence  near  Durham. 

Some  very  ancient  chessmen  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  in  particular  a set  called  the  Lewis 
Chessmen.  They  were  discovered  in  the  last  century, 
being  laid  bare  by  the  pick  axe  of  a labourer.  These 
chessmen  have  strange  staring  eyes;  when  the  workman 
saw  them,  he  took  them  for  gnomes  who  had  come  up 
out  of  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  to  annoy  him,  and  he 
rushed  off  in  terror  to  report  what  proved  to  be  an  im- 
portant archaeological  discovery. 


294  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


One  of  the  chessmen  of  Charlemagne  is  to  be  seen  in 
Paris : he  rides  an  elephant,  and  is  attended  by  a cor- 
tege, all  in  one  piece.  Sometimes  these  men  are  very 
elaborate  ivory  carvings  in  themselves. 

As  Mr.  Maskell  points  out  that  bishops  did  not  wear 
mitres,  according  to  high  authority,  until  after  the  year 
1000,  it  is  unlikely  that  any  of  the  ancient  chessmen  in 
which  the  Bishop  appears  in  a mitre  should  be  of  earlier 
date  than  the  eleventh  century.  There  is  one  fine  Anglo- 
Saxon  set  of  draughts  in  which  the  white  pieces  are  of 
walrus  ivory,  and  the  black  pieces,  of  genuine  jet. 

Paxes,  which  were  passed  about  in  church  for  the  Kiss 
of  Peace,  were  sometimes  made  of  ivory. 

There  are  few  remains  of  early  Spanish  ivory  sculpture. 
Among  them  is  a casket  curiously  and  intricately  orna- 
mented and  decorated,  with  the  following  inscription: 
“ In  the  Name  of  God,  The  Blessing  of  God,  the  com- 
plete felicity,  the  happiness,  the  fulfilment  of  the  hope 
of  good  works,  and  the  adjourning  of  the  fatal  period  of 
death,  be  with  Hagib  Seifo.  . . . This  box  was  made 
by  his  orders  under  the  inspection  of  his  slave  Nomayr, 
in  the  year  395.”  Ivory  caskets  in  Spain  were  often 
used  to  contain  perfumes,  or  to  serve  as  jewel  boxes. 
It  was  customary,  also,  to  use  them  to  convey  presents 
of  relics  to  churches.  Ivory  was  largely  used  in  Spain 
for  inlay  in  fine  furniture. 

King  Don  Sancho  ordered  a shrine,  in  1033,  to  con- 
tain the  relics  of  St.  Millan.  The  ivory  plaques  which 
are  set  about  this  shrine  are  interesting  specimens  of 


Carving  in  Wood  and  Ivory 


295 


Spanish  art  under  Oriental  domination.  Under  one 
little  figure  is  inscribed  Apparitio  Scholastico,  and 
Remirus  Rex  under  another,  while  a figure  of  a sculptor 
carving  a shield,  with  a workman  standing  by  him,  is 
labelled  “ Magistro  and  Ridolpho  his  son.” 

Few  individual  ivory  carvers  are  known  by  name. 
A French  artist,  Jean  Labraellier,  worked  in  ivory  for 
Charles  V.  of  France;  and  in  Germany  it  must  have  been 
quite  a fashionable  pursuit  in  high  life;  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  August  the  Pious,  who  died  in  1586,  was 
an  ivory  worker,  and  there  are  two  snuff-boxes  shown 
as  the  work  of  Peter  the  Great.  The  Elector  of  Branden- 
burgh  and  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  both  carved  ivory  for 
their  own  recreation.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  there  were  many  well-known  sculptors  who 
turned  their  attention  to  ivory;  but  our  researches 
hardly  carry  us  so  far. 

For  a moment,  however,  I must  touch  on  the  subject 
of  billiard  balls.  It  may  interest  our  readers  to  know 
that  the  size  of  the  little  black  dot  on  a ball  indicates  its 
quality.  The  nerve  which  runs  through  a tusk,  is  visible 
at  this  point,  and  a ball  made  from  the  ivory  near  the 
end  of  the  tusk,  where  the  nerve  has  tapered  off  to  its 
smallest  proportions,  is  the  best  ball.  The  finest  balls 
of  all  are  made  from  short  stubby  tusks,  which  are  known 
as  “ ball  teeth.”  The  ivory  in  these  is  closer  in  grain, 
and  they  are  much  more  expensive.  Very  large  tusks 
are  more  liable  to  have  coarse  grained  bony  spaces 
near  the  centre. 


CHAPTER  X 


INLAY  AND  MOSAIC 

There  are  three  kinds  of  inlay,  one  where  the  pattern 
is  incised,  and  a plastic  filling  pressed  in,  and  allowed 
to  harden,  on  the  principle  of  a niello;  another,  where 
both  the  piece  to  be  set  in  and  the  background  are  cut 
out  separately;  and  a third,  where  a number  of  small 
bits  are  fitted  together  as  in  a mosaic.  The  pavement 
in  Siena  is  an  example  of  the  first  process.  The  second 
process  is  often  accomplished  with  a fine  saw,  like  what 
is  popularly  known  as  a jig  saw,  cutting  the  same  pattern 
in  light  and  dark  wood,  one  layer  over  another;  the 
dark  can  then  be  set  into  the  light,  and  the  light  in  the 
dark  without  more  than  one  cutting  for  both.  The 
mosaic  of  small  pieces  can  be  seen  in  any  of  the  Southern 
churches,  and,  indeed,  now  in  nearly  every  country. 
It  was  the  chief  wall  treatment  of  the  middle  ages. 

About  the  year  764,  Maestro  Giudetto  ornamented 
the  delightful  Church  of  St.  Michele  at  Lucca.  This 
work,  or  at  least  the  best  of  it,  is  a procession  of  various 
little  partly  heraldic  and  partly  grotesque  animals,  in- 
laid with  white  marble  on  a ground  of  green  serpentine. 
They  are  full  of  the  best  expression  of  mediaeval  art. 

296 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


297 


MARBLE  INLAY  FROM  LUCCA 


298  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


The  Lion  of  Florence,  the  Hare  of  Pisa,  the  Stork  of 
Perugia,  the  Dragon  of  Pistoja,  are  all  to  be  seen  in  these 
simple  mosaics,  if  one  chooses  to  consider  them  as  such, 
hardly  more  than  white  silhouettes,  and  yet  full  of  life 
and  vigour.  The  effect  is  that  of  a vast  piece  of  lace,  — 
the  real  cut  work  of  the  period.  Absurd  little  trees, 
as  space  fillers,  are  set  in  the  green  and  white  marble. 
Every  reader  will  remember  how  Ruskin  was  enthusi- 
astic over  these  little  creatures,  and  no  one  can  fail  to 
feel  their  charm. 

The  pavements  at  the  Florentine  Baptistery  and  at 
San  Miniato  are  interesting  examples  of  inlay  in  black 
and  white  marble.  They  are  early  works,  and  are 
the  natural  forerunners  of  the  marvellous  pavement 
at  Siena,  which  is  the  most  remarkable  of  its  kind  in  the 
world. 

The  pavement  masters  worked  in  varying  methods. 
The  first  of  these  was  the  joining  together  of  large  flat 
pieces  of  marble,  cut  in  the  shapes  of  the  general  design, 
and  then  outlining  on  them  an  actual  black  drawing 
by  means  of  deeply  cut  channels,  filled  with  hard  black 
cement.  The  channels  were  first  cut  superficially  and 
then  emphasized  and  deepened  by  the  use  of  a drill, 
in  a series  of  holes. 

Later  workers  used  black  marbles  for  the  backgrounds, 
red  for  the  ground,  and  white  for  the  figures,  sometimes 
adding  touches  of  yellow  inlay  for  decorations,  jewels, 
and  so  forth.  Some  of  the  workers  even  used  gray 
marble  to  represent  shadows,  but  this  was  very  difficult, 


DETAIL  OF  PAVEMENT,  BAPTISTERY,  FLORENCE 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


299 


and  those  who  attempted  less  chiaroscuro  were  more 
successful  from  a decorator’s  point  of  view. 

This  work  covered  centuries.  The  earliest  date  of 
the  ornamental  work  in  Siena  is  1369.  From  1413  to 
1423  Domenico  del  Coro,  a famous  worker  in  glass  and 
in  intarsia,  was  superintendent  of  the  works.  The 
beauty  and  spirit  of  much  of  the  earlier  inlay  have  been 
impaired  by  restoration,  but  the  whole  effect  is  unique, 
and  on  so  vast  a scale  that  one  hesitates  to  criticize  it 
just  as  one  hesitates  to  criticize  the  windows  at  Gouda. 

One  compartment  of  the  floor  is  in  genuine  mosaic, 
dating  from  1373.  The  designer  is  unknown,  but  the 
feeling  is  very  Sienese;  Romulus  and  Remus  are  seen 
in  their  customary  relation  to  the  domesticated  wolf, 
while  the  symbolical  animals  of  various  Italian  cities 
are  arranged  in  a series  of  circles  around  this  centrepiece. 
One  of  the  most  striking  designs  is  that  of  Absalom, 
hanging  by  his  hair.  It  is  in  sharp  black  and  white, 
and  the  foliage  of  the  trees  is  remarkably  decorative, 
rendered  with  interesting  minutiae.  This  is  attributed 
to  Pietro  del  Minella,  and  was  begun  in  1447. 

A very  interesting  composition  is  that  of  the  Parable 
of  the  Mote  and  the  Beam.  This  is  an  early  work,  about 
1375;  it  shows  two  gentlemen  in  the  costume  of  the 
period,  arguing  in  courtly  style,  one  apparently  de- 
claiming to  the  other  how  much  better  it  would  be  for 
him  if  it  were  not  for  the  mote  in  his  eye,  while  from  the 
eye  of  the  speaker  himself  extends,  at  an  impossible 
angle,  a huge  wedge  of  wood,  longer  than  his  head,  from 


300  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


which  he  appears  to  suffer  no  inconvenience,  and  which 
seems  to  have  defied  the  laws  of  gravitation ! 

The  renowned  Matteo  da  Siena  worked  on  the  pave- 
ment; he  designed  the  scene  of  the  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents  — it  seems  to  have  been  always  his  favourite 
subject.  He  was  apparently  of  a morbid  turn. 

In  1505  Pinturicchio  was  paid  for  a work  on  the  floor: 
“ To  master  Bernardino  Pinturicchio,  ptr.,  for  his  labour 
in  making  a cartoon  for  the  design  of  Fortune,  which 
is  now  being  made  in  the  Cathedral,  on  this  13th  day 
of  March,  12  Lires  for  our  said  Master  Alberto.”  The 
mosaic  is  in  red,  black,  and  white,  while  other  coloured 
marbles  are  introduced  in  the  ornamental  parts  of  the 
design,  several  of  which  have  been  renewed.  Fortune 
herself  has  been  restored,  also,  as  have  most  of  the  lower 
figures  in  the  composition.  Her  precariousness  is  well 
indicated  by  her  action  in  resting  one  foot  on  a ball,  and 
the  other  on  an  unstable  little  boat  which  floats,  with 
broken  mast,  by  the  shore.  She  holds  a sail  above  her 
head,  so  that  she  is  liable  to  be  swayed  by  varying  winds. 
The  three  upper  figures  are  in  a better  state  of  preser- 
vation than  the  others. 

There  was  also  in  France  some  interest  in  mosaic 
during  the  eleventh  century.  At  St.  Remi  in  Rheims 
was  a celebrated  pavement  in  which  enamels  were  used 
as  well  as  marbles.  Among  the  designs  which  appeared 
on  this  pavement,  which  must  have  positively  rivalled 
Siena  in  its  glory,  was  a group  of  the  Seven  Arts,  as  well 
as  numerous  Biblical  scenes.  It  is  said  that  certain 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


301 


bits  of  valuable  stone,  like  jasper,  were  exhibited  in 
marble  settings,  like  “ precious  stones  in  a ring.”  There 
were  other  French  pavements,  of  the  eleventh  century, 
which  were  similar  in  their  construction,  in  which  terra 
cotta  was  employed  for  the  reds. 

“ Pietra  Dura  ” was  a mosaic  laid  upon  either  a thick 
wood  or  a marble  foundation.  Lapis  lazuli,  malachite, 
and  jasper  were  used  largely,  as  well  as  bloodstones, 
onyx,  and  Rosso  Antico.  In  Florentine  Pietra  Dura 
work,  the  inlay  of  two  hard  and  equally  cut  materials 
reached  its  climax. 

Arnolfo  del  Cambio,  who  built  the  Cathedral  of  Sta. 
Maria  Fiore  in  Florence,  being  its  architect  from  1294 
till  1310,  was  the  first  in  that  city  to  use  coloured  slabs 
and  panels  of  marble  in  a sort  of  flat  mosaic  on  a vast 
scale  on  the  outside  of  buildings.  His  example  has  been 
extensively  followed  throughout  Italy.  The  art  of 
Pietra  Dura  mosaic  began  under  Cosimo  I.  who  im- 
ported it,  if  one  may  use  such  an  expression,  from 
Lombardy.  It  was  used  chiefly,  like  Gobelins  Tapestry, 
to  make  very  costly  presents,  otherwise  unprocurable, 
for  grandees  and  crowned  heads.  For  a long  time  the 
work  was  a Royal  monopoly.  There  are  several  interest- 
ing examples  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  in  this  case  in  the  form 
of  tables.  Flowers,  fruits,  shells,  and  even  figures  and 
landscapes  have  been  represented  in  this  manner. 

Six  masters  of  the  art  of  Pietra  Dura  came  from  Milan 
in  1580,  to  instruct  the  Florentines:  and  a portrait  of 
Cosimo  I.  was  the  first  important  result  of  their  labours. 


302  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


It  was  executed  by  Maestro  Francesco  Ferucci.  The 
Medicean  Mausoleum  in  Florence  exhibits  magnificent 
specimens  of  this  craft. 

In  the  time  of  Ferdinand  I.  the  art  was  carried  by 
Florentines  to  India,  where  it  was  used  in  decorating 
some  of  the  palaces.  Under  Ferdinand  II.  Pietra  Dura 
reached  its  climax,  there  being  in  Florence  at  this  time 
a most  noted  Frenchman,  Luigi  Siries,  who  settled  in 
Florence  in  1722.  He  refined  the  art  by  ceasing  to  use 
the  stone  as  a pigment  in  producing  pictures,  and  em- 
ploying it  for  the  more  legitimate  purposes  of  decora- 
tion. Some  of  the  large  tables  in  the  Pitti  are  his  work. 
Flowers  and  shells  on  a porphyry  ground  were  especially 
characteristic  of  Siries.  There  was  a famous  inlayer 
of  tables,  long  before  this  time,  named  Antonio  Leopardi, 
who  lived  from  1450  to  1525. 

The  inlay  of  wood  has  been  called  marquetry  and  in- 
tarsia,  and  was  used  principally  on  furniture  and  choir 
stalls.  Labarte  gives  the  origin  of  this  art  in  Italy  to  the 
twelfth  century.  The  Guild  of  Carpenters  in  Florence 
had  a branch  of  Intarsiatura  workers,  which  included 
all  forms  of  inlay  in  wood.  It  is  really  more  correct  to 
speak  of  intarsia  when  we  allude  to  early  Italian  work, 
the  word  being  derived  from  “ interserere,”  the  Latin 
for  “ insert;  ” while  marquetry  originates  in  France, 
much  later,  from  “ marqueter,  ” to  mark.  Italian  wood 
inlay  began  in  Siena,  where  one  Manuello  is  reported 
to  have  worked  in  the  Cathedral  in  1259.  Intarsia  was 
also  made  in  Orvieto  at  this  time.  Vasari  did  not  hold 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


303 


the  art  in  high  estimation,  saying  that  it  was  practised 
by  “ those  persons  who  possessed  more  patience  than 
skill  in  design,”  and  I confess  to  a furtive  concurrence 
in  Vasari’s  opinion.  He  criticizes  it  a little  illogically, 
however,  when  he  goes  on  to  say  that  the  “ work  soon 
becomes  dark,  and  is  always  in  danger  of  perishing  from 
the  worms  and  by  fire,”  for  in  these  respects  it  is  no 
more  perishable  than  any  great  painting  on  canvas 
or  panel.  Vasari  always  is  a little  extreme,  as  we  know. 

The  earliest  Italian  workers  took  a solid  block  of  wood, 
chiselled  out  a sunken  design,  and  then  filled  in  the  de- 
pression with  other  woods.  The  only  enemy  to  such 
work  was  dampness,  which  might  loosen  the  glue,  or 
cause  the  small  thin  bits  to  swell  or  warp.  The  glue 
was  applied  always  when  the  surfaces  were  perfectly 
clean,  and  the  whole  was  pressed,  being  screwed  down 
on  heated  metal  plates,  that  all  might  dry  evenly. 

In  1478  there  were  thirty-four  workshops  of  intarsia 
makers  in  Florence.  The  personal  history  of  several 
of  the  Italian  workers  in  inlay  is  still  available,  and,  as 
it  makes  a craft  seem  much  more  vital  when  the  names 
of  the  craftsmen  are  known  to  us,  it  will  be  interesting 
to  glance  at  a few  names  of  prominent  artists  in  this 
branch  of  work.  Bernardo  Agnolo  and  his  family  are 
among  them;  and  Domenico  and  Giovanni  Tasso  were 
wood-carvers  who  worked  with  Michelangelo.  Among 
the  “ Novelli,”  there  is  a quaint  tale  called  “ The  Fat 
Ebony  Carver,”  which  is  interesting  to  read  in  this 
connection. 


304  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Benedetto  da  Maiano,  one  of  the  “ most  solemn  ” 
workers  in  intarsia  in  Florence,  became  disgusted  with 
his  art  after  one  trying  experience,  and  ever  after  turned 
his  attention  to  other  carving.  Vasari’s  version  of  the 
affair  is  as  follows.  Benedetto  had  been  making  two 
beautiful  chests,  all  inlaid  most  elaborately,  and  carried 
them  to  the  Court  of  Hungary,  to  exhibit  the  workman- 
ship. “ When  he  had  made  obeisance  to  the  king,  and 
had  been  kindly  received,  he  brought  forward  his  cases 
and  had  them  unpacked  . . . but  it  was  then  he  dis- 
covered that  the  humidity  of  the  sea  voyage  had  softened 
the  glue  to  such  an  extent  that  when  the  waxed  cloths 
in  which  the  coffers  had  been  wrapped  were  opened, 
almost  all  the  pieces  were  found  sticking  to  them,  and 
so  fell  to  the  ground ! Whether  Benedetto  stood  amazed 
and  confounded  at  such  an  event,  in  the  presence  of  so 
many  nobles,  let  every  one  judge  for  himself.” 

A famous  family  of  wood  inlayers  were  the  del  Tasso, 
who  came  from  S.  Gervasio.  One  of  the  brothers, 
Giambattista,  was  a wag,  and  is  said  to  have  wasted 
much  time  in  amusement  and  standing  about  criticizing 
the  methods  of  others.  He  was  a friend  of  Cellini,  and 
all  his  cronies  pronounce  him  to  have  been  a good  fellow. 
On  one  occasion  he  had  a good  dose  of  the  spirit  of  criti- 
cism, himself,  from  a visiting  abbot,  who  stopped  to 
see  the  Medicean  tomb,  where  Tasso  happened  to  be 
working.  Tasso  was  requested  to  show  the  stranger 
about,  which  he  did.  The  abbot  began  by  depreciating 
the  beauty  of  the  building,  remarking  that  Michelangelo’s 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


305 


figures  in  the  Sacristy  did  not  interest  him,  and  on  his 
way  up  the  stairs,  he  chanced  to  look  out  of  a window  and 
caught  sight  of  Brunelleschi’s  dome.  When  the  dull 
ecclesiastic  began  to  say  that  this  dome  did  not  merit 
the  admiration  which  it  raised,  the  exasperated  Tasso, 
who  was  loyal  to  his  friends,  could  stand  no  more.  II 
Lasca  recounts  what  happened:  “ Pulling  the  abbot 
backward  with  force,  he  made  him  tumble  down  the 
staircase,  and  he  took  good  care  to  fall  himself  on  top  of 
him,  and  calling  out  that  the  frater  had  been  taken  mad, 
he  bound  his  arms  and  legs  with  cords  . . . and  then 
taking  him,  hanging  over  his  shoulders,  he  carried  him 
to  a room  near,  stretched  him  on  the  ground,  and  left 
him  there  in  the  dark,  taking  away  the  key.”  We  will 
hope  that  if  Tasso  himself  was  too  prone  to  criticism, 
he  may  have  learned  a lesson  from  this  didactic  monastic, 
and  was  more  tolerant  in  the  future. 

Of  the  work  of  Canozio,  a worker  of  about  the  same 
time,  Matteo  Colaccio  in  1486,  writes,  “ In  visiting  these 
intarsiad  figures  I was  so  much  taken  with  the  ex- 
quisiteness of  the  work  that  I could  not  withold  myself 
from  praising  the  author  to  heaven!”  He  refers  thus 
ecstatically  to  the  Stalls  at  St.  Antonio  at  Padua,  which 
were  inlaid  by  Canozio,  assisted  by  other  masters.  For 
his  work  in  the  Church  of  St.  Domenico  in  Reggio,  the 
contract  called  for  some  curious  observances:  he  was 
bound  by  this  to  buy  material  for  fifty  lire,  to  work  one 
third  of  the  whole  undertaking  for  fifty  lire,  to  earn 
another  fifty  lire  for  each  succeeding  third,  and  then 


306  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


to  give  “ forty-eight  planks  to  the  Lady,”  whatever  that 
may  mean!  Among  the  instruments  mentioned  are: 
“ Two  screw  profiles:  one  outliner:  four  one-handed 
little  planes : rods  for  making  cornices : two  large  squares 
and  one  grafonetto:  three  chisels,  one  glued  and  one 
all  of  iron : a pair  of  big  pincers : two  little  axes : and  a 
bench  to  put  the  tarsia  on.”  Pyrography  has  its  birth 
in  intarsia,  where  singeing  was  sometimes  employed  as 
a shading  in  realistic  designs. 

In  the  Study  of  the  Palace  at  Urbino,  there  is  mention 
of  “ arm  chairs  encircling  a table  all  mosaicked  with 
tarsia,  and  carved  by  Maestro  Giacomo  of  Florence,” 
a worker  of  considerable  repute.  One  of  the  first  to  adopt 
the  use  of  ivory,  pearl,  and  silver  for  inlay  was  Andrea 
Massari  of  Siena.  In  this  same  way  inlay  of  tortoise- 
shell and  brass  was  made,  — the  two  layers  were  sawed 
out  together,  and  then  counterchanged  so  as  to  give  the 
pattern  in  each  material  upon  the  other.  Cabinets  are 
often  treated  in  this  way.  Ivory  and  sandal-wood  or 
ebony,  too,  have  been  sometimes  thus  combined.  In 
Spain  cabinets  were  often  made  of  a sort  of  mosaic  of 
ebony  and  silver;  in  1574  a Prohibition  was  issued 
against  using  silver  in  this  way,  since  it  was  becoming 
scarce. 

In  De  Luna’s  “ Diologos  Familiares,”  a Spanish 
work  of  1669,  the  following  conversation  is  given: 
“ How  much  has  your  worship  paid  for  this  cabinet? 
It  is  worth  more  than  forty  ducats.  What  wood  is  it 
made  of?  The  red  is  of  mahogany,  from  Habana,  and 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


307 

the  black  is  made  of  ebony,  and  the  white  of  ivory. 
You  will  find  the  workmanship  excellent.”  This  proves 
that  inlaid  cabinets  were  usual  in  Spain. 

Ebony  being  expensive,  it  was  sometimes  simulated 
with  stain.  An  old  fifteenth  century  recipe  says : “ Take 
boxwood  and  lay  in  oil  with  sulphur  for  a night,  then 
let  it  stew  for  an  hour,  and  it  will  become  as  black  as 
coal.”  An  old  Italian  book  enjoins  the  polishing  of  this 
imitation  ebony  as  follows:  “ Is  the  wood  to  be  polished 
with  burnt  pumice  stone?  Rub  the  work  carefully  with 
canvas  and  this  powder,  and  then  wash  the  piece  with 
Dutch  lime  water  so  that  it  may  be  more  beautifully 
polished  . . . then  the  rind  of  a pomegranate  must  be 
steeped,  and  the  wood  smeared  over  with  it,  and  set  to 
dry,  but  in  the  shade.” 

Inlay  was  often  imitated;  the  elaborate  marquetry 
cabinets  in  Sta.  Maria  della  Grazia  in  Milan  which 
are  proudly  displayed  are  in  reality,  according  to  Mr. 
Russell  Sturgis,  cleverly  painted  to  simulate  the  real 
inlaid  wood.  Mr.  Hamilton  Jackson  says  that  these, 
being  by  Luini,  are  intended  to  be  known  as  paintings, 
but  to  imitate  intarsia. 

Intarsia  was  made  also  among  the  monasteries.  The 
Olivetans  practised  this  art  extensively,  and,  much  as 
some  monasteries  had  scriptoria  for  the  production  of 
books,  so  others  had  carpenter’s  shops  and  studios  where, 
according  to  Michele  Caffi,  they  showed  “ great  talent 
for  working  in  wood,  succeeding  to  the  heirship  of  the 
art  of  tarsia  in  coloured  woods,  which  they  got  from 


308  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Tuscany.”  One  of  the  more  important  of  the  Olivetan 
Monasteries  was  St.  Michele  in  Bosco,  where  the  noted 
worker  in  tarsia,  Fra  Raffaello  da  Brescia,  made  some 
magnificent  choir  stalls.  In  1521  these  were  finished, 
but  they  were  largely  destroyed  by  the  mob  in  the 
suppression  of  the  convents  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  1812  eighteen  of  the  stalls  were  saved,  bought  by 
the  Marquis  Malvezzi,  and  placed  in  St.  Petronio.  He 
tried  also  to  save  the  canopies,  but  these  had  been  sold 
for  firewood  at  about  twopence  each! 

The  stalls  of  St.  Domenico  at  Bologna  are  by  Fra 
Damiano  of  Bergamo ; it  is  said  of  him  that  his  woods 
were  coloured  so  marvellously  that  the  art  of  tarsia  was 
by  him  raised  to  the  rank  of  that  of  painting!  He  was 
a Dominican  monk  in  Bologna  most  of  his  life.  When 
Charles  V.  visited  the  choir  of  St.  Domenico,  and  saw 
these  stalls,  he  would  not  believe  that  the  work  was 
accomplished  by  inlay,  and  actually  cut  a piece  out  with 
his  sword  by  way  of  investigation. 

Castiglione  the  Courtier  expresses  himself  with  much 
admiration  of  the  work  of  Fra  Damiano,  “ rather  divine 
than  human.”  Of  the  technical  perfection  of  the 
workmanship  he  adds:  “ Though  these  works  are  exe- 
cuted with  inlaid  pieces,  the  eye  cannot  even  by  the 
greatest  exertion  detect  the  joints.  ...  I think,  indeed, 
I am  certain,  that  it  will  be  called  the  eighth  wonder 
of  the  world.”  (Count  Castiglione  did  not  perhaps 
realize  what  a wonderful  world  he  lived  in!)  But  at  any 
rate  there  is  no  objection  to  subscribing  to  his  eulogy: 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


309 


“ All  that  I could  say  would  be  little  enough  of  his  rare 
and  singular  virtue,  and  on  the  goodness  of  his  religious 
and  holy  life.”  Another  frate  who  wrote  about  that 
time  alluded  to  Fra  Damiano  as  “ putting  together  woods 
with  so  much  art  that  they  appear  as  pictures  painted 
with  the  brush. ” 

In  Germany  there  was  some  interesting  intarsia  made 
by  the  Elfen  Brothers,  of  St.  Michael’s  in  Hildesheim, 
who  produced  beautiful  chancel  furniture.  Hans 
Stengel  of  Nuremberg,  too,  was  renowned  in  this  art. 

After  the  Renaissance  marquetry  ran  riot  in  France, 
but  that  is  out  of  the  province  of  our  present  study. 

The  art  of  mosaic  making  has  changed  very  little 
during  the  centuries.  Nearly  all  the  technical  methods 
now  used  were  known  to  the  ancients.  In  fact,  this  art 
is  rather  an  elemental  one,  and  any  departure  from  old 
established  rules  is  liable  to  lead  the  worker  into  a new 
craft;  his  art  becomes  that  of  the  inlayer  or  the  enam- 
eller  when  he  attempts  to  use  larger  pieces  in  cloissons, 
or  to  fuse  bits  together  by  any  process. 

Mosaic  is  a natural  outgrowth  from  other  inlaying; 
when  an  elaborate  design  had  to  be  set  up,  quite  too 
complicated  to  be  treated  in  tortuously-cut  large  pieces, 
the  craftsman  naturally  decided  to  render  the  whole 
work  with  small  pieces,  which  demanded  less  accurate 
shaping  of  each  piece.  Originally,  undoubtedly,  each 
bit  of  glass  or  stone  was  laid  in  the  soft  plaster  of  wall 
or  floor;  but  now  a more  labour  saving  method  has  ob- 
tained; it  is  amusing  to  watch  the  modern  rest-cure. 


310  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Instead  of  an  artist  working  in  square  bits  of  glass  to 
carry  out  his  design,  throwing  his  interest  and  personality 
into  the  work,  a labourer  sits  leisurely  before  a large 
cartoon,  on  which  he  glues  pieces  of  mosaic  the  pre- 
scribed colour  and  size,  mechanically  fitting  them  over 
the  design  until  it  is  completely  covered.  Then  this 
sheet  of  paper,  with  the  mosaic  glued  to  it,  is  slapped 
on  to  the  plaster  wall,  having  the  stones  next  to  the 
plaster,  so  that,  until  it  is  dry,  all  that  can  be  seen  is  the 
sheet  of  paper  apparently  fixed  on  the  wall.  But  lo! 
the  grand  transformation!  The  paper  is  washed  off,  leav- 
ing in  place  the  finished  product  — a very  accurate  imi- 
tation of  the  picture  on  which  the  artist  laboured,  all  in 
place  in  the  wall,  every  stone  evenly  set  as  if  it  had  been 
polished  — entirely  missing  the  charm  of  the  irregular 
faceted  effect  of  an  old  mosaic  — again  mechanical 
facility  kills  the  spirit  of  an  art. 

Much  early  mosaic,  known  as  Cosmati  Work,  is  inlaid 
into  marble,  in  geometric  designs;  twisted  columns 
of  this  class  of  work  may  be  seen  in  profusion  in  Rome, 
and  the  fagade  of  Orvieto  is  similarly  decorated.  Our 
illustration  will  demonstrate  the  technical  process  as 
well  as  a description. 

The  mosaic  base  of  Edward  the  Confessor’s  shrine  is 
inscribed  to  the  effect  that  it  was  wrought  by  Peter 
of  Rome.  It  was  a dignified  specimen  of  the  best  Cos- 
mati. All  the  gold  glass  which  once  played  its  part  in  the 
scheme  of  decoration  has  been  picked  out,  and  in  fact 
most  of  the  pieces  in  the  pattern  are  missing. 


AMBO  AT  RAVELLO  ; SPECIMEN  OF  COSMATI  MOSAIC 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


311 


The  mosaic  pavement  in  Westminster  Abbey  Pres- 
bytery is  as  fine  an  example  of  Roman  Cosmati  mosaic 
as  one  can  see  north  of  the  Alps.  An  inscription,  almost 
obliterated,  is  interpreted  by  Mr.  Lethaby  as  signifying, 
that  in  the  year  1268  “ Henry  III.  being  King,  and 
Odericus  the  cementarius,  Richard  de  Ware,  Abbot, 
brought  the  porphyry  and  divers  jaspers  and  marbles 
of  Thaso  from  Rome.”  In  another  place  a sort  of 
enigma,  drawn  from  an  arbitrary  combination  of  animal 
forms  and  numbers,  marks  a chart  for  determining  the 
end  of  the  world!  There  is  also  a beautiful  mosaic  tomb 
at  Westminster,  inlaid  with  an  interlacing  pattern  in  a 
ground  of  marble,  like  the  work  so  usual  in  Rome,  and 
in  Palermo,  and  other  Southern  centres  of  the  art. 

While  the  material  used  in  mosaic  wall  decoration  is 
sometimes  a natural  product,  like  marble,  porphyry, 
coral,  or  alabaster,  the  picture  is  composed  for  the  most 
part  of  artificially  prepared  smalts  — opaque  glass  of 
various  colours,  made  in  sheets  and  then  cut  up  into 
cubes.  An  infinite  variety  in  gradations  of  colour  and 
texture  is  thus  made  possible. 

The  gold  grounds  which  one  sees  in  nearly  all  mosaics 
are  constructed  in  an  interesting  way.  Each  cube  is 
composed  of  plain  rather  coarse  glass,  of  a greenish  tinge, 
upon  which  is  laid  gold  leaf.  Over  this  leaf  is  another 
film  of  glass,  extremely  thin,  so  that  the  actual  metal 
is  isolated  between  two  glasses,  and  is  thus  impervious 
to  such  qualities  in  the  air  as  would  tarnish  it  or  cause 
it  to  deteriorate.  To  prevent  an  uninteresting  evenness 


312  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


of  surface  on  which  the  sun’s  rays  would  glint  in  a trying 
manner,  it  was  usual  to  lay  the  gold  cubes  in  a slightly 
irregular  manner,  so  that  each  facet,  as  it  were,  should 
reflect  at  a different  angle,  and  the  texture,  especially 
in  the  gold  grounds,  never  became  monotonous.  One 
does  not  realize  the  importance  of  this  custom  until 
one  sees  a cheap  modern  mosaic  laid  absolutely  flat, 
and  then  it  is  evident  how  necessary  this  broken  surface 
is  to  good  effect.  Any  one  who  has  tried  to  analyze 
the  reason  for  the  superiority  of  old  French  stained  glass 
over  any  other,  will  be  surprised,  if  he  goes  close  to  the 
wall,  under  one  of  the  marvellous  windows  of  Chartres, 
for  instance,  and  looks  up,  to  see  that  the  whole  fabric 
is  warped  and  bent  at  a thousand  angles,  — it  is  not  only 
the  quality  of  the  ancient  glass,  nor  its  colour,  that  gives 
this  unattainable  expression  to  these  windows,  but  the 
accidental  warping  and  wear  of  centuries  have  laid  each 
bit  of  glass  at  a different  angle,  so  that  the  refraction 
of  the  light  is  quite  different  from  any  possible  reflection 
on  the  smooth  surface  of  a modern  window. 

The  dangers  of  a clear  gold  ground  were  felt  more 
fully  by  the  workers  at  Ravenna  and  Rome,  than  in 
Venice.  Architectural  schemes  were  introduced  to  break 
up  the  surface : clouds  and  backgrounds,  fields  of  flowers, 
and  trees,  and  such  devices,  were  used  to  prevent  the 
monotony  of  the  unbroken  glint.  But  in  Venice  the 
decorators  were  brave;  their  faith  in  their  material 
was  unbounded,  and  they  not  only  frankly  laid  gold  in 
enormous  masses  on  flat  wall  and  cupola,  but  they  even 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


313 


moulded  the  edges  and  archivolts  without  separate  ribs 
or  strips  to  relieve  them ; the  gold  is  carried  all  over  the 
edges,  which  are  rounded  into  curves  to  receive  the 
mosaic,  so  that  the  effect  is  that  of  the  entire  upper  part 
of  the  church  having  been  pressed  into  shape  out  of  solid 
gold.  The  lights  on  these  rounded  edges  are  incom- 
parably rich. 

It  is  equally  important  to  vary  the  plain  values  of  the 
colour,  and  this  was  accomplished  by  means  of  dilution 
and  contrast  in  tints  instead  of  by  unevenness  of  surface, 
although  in  many  of  the  most  satisfactory  mosaics, 
both  means  have  been  employed.  Plain  tints  in  mosaic 
can  be  relieved  in  a most  delightful  way  by  the  intro- 
duction of  little  separate  cubes  of  unrelated  colour,  and 
the  artist  who  best  understands  this  use  of  mass  and  dot 
is  the  best  maker  of  mosaic.  The  actual  craft  of  con- 
struction is  similar  everywhere,  but  the  use  of  what 
we  may  regard  as  the  pigment  has  possibilities  similar 
to  the  colours  of  a painter.  The  manipulation  being  of 
necessity  slow,  it  is  more  difficult  to  convey  the  idea  of 
spontaneity  in  design  than  it  is  in  a fresco  painting. 

To  follow  briefly  the  history  of  mosaic  as  used  in  the 
Dark  Ages,  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  period  of  the 
Renaissance,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  by  the  fourth 
century  mosaic  was  the  principal  decoration  in  ecclesi- 
astical buildings.  Contantine  employed  this  art  very 
extensively.  Of  his  period,  however,  few  examples 
remain.  The  most  notable  is  the  little  church  of  Sta. 
Constanza,  the  vaults  of  which  are  ornamented  in  this 


314  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


way,  with  a fine  running  pattern  of  vines,  interspersed 
with  figures  on  a small  scale.  The  Liber  Pontificalis 
tells  how  Constantine  built  the  Basilica  of  St.  Agnese  at 
the  request  of  his  daughter,  and  also  a baptistery  in  the 
same  place,  where  Constance  was  baptized,  by  Bishop 
Sylvester. 

Among  the  most  interesting  early  mosaics  is  the  apse 
of  the  Church  of  St.  Pudentiana  in  Rome.  Barbet  de 
Jouy,  who  has  written  extensively  on  this  mosaic, 
considers  it  to  be  an  eighth  century  achievement.  But 
a later  archaeologist,  M.  Rossi,  believes  it  to  have  been 
made  in  the  fourth  century,  in  which  theory  he  is 
upheld  by  M.  Vitet.  The  design  is  that  of  a company 
of  saints  gathered  about  the  Throne  on  which  God 
the  Father  sits  to  pass  judgment.  In  certain  restorations 
and  alterations  made  in  1588  two  of  these  figures  were 
cut  away,  and  the  lower  halves  of  those  remaining  were 
also  removed,  so  that  the  figures  are  now  only  half 
length.  The  faces  and  figures  are  drawn  in  a very 
striking  manner,  being  realistic  and  full  of  graceful 
action,  very  different  from  the  mosaics  of  a later  period, 
which  were  dominated  by  Byzantine  tradition. 

In  France  were  many  specimens  of  the  mosaics  of 
the  fifth  century.  But  literary  descriptions  are  all  that 
have  survived  of  these  works,  which  might  once  have 
been  seen  at  Nantes,  Tours,  and  Clermont. 

Ravenna  is  the  shrine  of  the  craft  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries.  It  is  useless  in  so  small  a space  to  attempt 
to  describe  or  do  justice  to  these  incomparable  walls, 


MOSAIC  FROM  RAVENNA;  THEODORA  AND  HER  SUITE,  16TH  CENTURY 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


315 


where  gleam  the  marvellous  procession  of  white  robed 
virgins,  and  where  glitters  the  royal  cortege  of  Justinian 
and  Theodora.  The  acme  of  the  art  was  reached  when 
these  mural  decorations  were  planned  and  executed,  and 
the  churches  of  Ravenna  may  be  considered  the  central 
museum  of  the  world  for  a study  of  mosaic. 

Among  those  who  worked  at  Ravenna  a few  names 
have  descended.  These  craftsmen  were,  Cuserius, 
Paulus,  Janus,  Statius  and  Stephanus,  but  their  his- 
tories are  vague.  Theodoric  also  brought  some  mosaic 
artists  from  Rome  to  work  in  Ravenna,  which  fact 
accounts  for  a Latin  influence  discernible  in  these  mo- 
saics, which  are  in  many  instances  free  from  Byzantine 
stiffness.  The  details  of  the  textiles  in  the  great  mosaics 
of  Justinian  and  Theodora  are  rarely  beautiful.  The 
chlamys  with  which  Justinian  is  garbed  is  covered  with 
circular  interlaces  with  birds  in  them;  on  the  border 
of  the  Empress’s  robe  are  embroideries  of  the  three 
Magi  presenting  their  gifts;  on  one  of  the  robes  of  the 
attendants  there  is  a pattern  of  ducks  swimming,  while 
another  is  ornamented  with  leaves  of  a five-pointed 
form. 

There  is  a mosaic  in  the  Tomb  of  Galla  Placida  in 
Ravenna,  representing  St.  Lawrence,  cheerfully  ap- 
proaching his  gridiron,  with  the  Cross  and  an  open 
book  encumbering  his  hands,  while  in  a convenient 
corner  stands  a little  piece  of  furniture  resembling  a 
meat-safe,  containing  the  Four  Gospels.  The  saint 
is  walking  briskly,  and  is  fully  draped;  the  gridiron  is 


316  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


of  the  proportions  of  a cot  bedstead,  and  has  a raging 
fire  beneath  it,  — a gruesome  suggestion  of  the  martyr- 
dom. 

No  finer  examples  of  the  art  of  the  colourist  in  mosaic 
can  be  seen  than  in  the  procession  of  Virgins  at  San 
Apollinaire  Nuovo  in  Ravenna.  Cool,  restrained,  and 
satisfying,  the  composition  has  all  the  elements  of 
chromatic  perfection.  In  the  golden  background  oc- 
casional dots  of  light  and  dark  brown  serve  to  deepen 
the  tone  into  a slightly  bronze  colour.  The  effect  is  espe- 
cially scintillating  and  rich,  more  like  hammered  gold 
than  a flat  sheet.  The  colours  in  the  trees  are  dark  and 
light  green,  while  the  Virgins,  in  brown  robes,  with 
white  draperies  over  them,  are  relieved  with  little 
touches  of  gold.  The  whole  tone  being  thus  green  and 
russet,  with  purplish  lines  about  the  halos,  is  an  unusual 
colour-scheme,  and  can  hardly  carry  such  conviction 
in  a description  as  when  it  is  seen. 

In  the  East,  the  Church  of  Sta.  Sophia  at  Constan- 
tinople exhibited  the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  this 
work;  the  building  was  constructed  under  Constantine, 
by  the  architects  Anthemius  and  Isidore,  and  the  entire 
interior,  walls  and  dome  included,  was  covered  by 
mosaic  pictures. 

Among  important  works  of  the  seventh  century  is 
the  apse  of  St.  Agnese,  in  Rome.  Honorius  decorated 
the  church,  about  630,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
mosaics  in  Rome.  At  St.  John  Lateran,  also,  Pope 
John  IV.  caused  a splendid  work  to  be  carried  out, 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


317 


which  has  been  reported  as  being  as  “ brilliant  as  the 
sacred  waters.” 

In  the  eighth  century  a magnificent  achievement 
was  accomplished  in  the  monastery  of  Centula,  in  Pi- 
cardie,  but  all  traces  of  this  have  been  lost,  for  the  con- 
vent was  burnt  in  1131.  The  eighth  was  not  an  active 
century  for  the  arts,  for  in  726  Leo's  edict  was  sent  forth, 
prohibiting  all  forms  of  image  worship,  and  at  a Council 
at  Constantinople  in  754  it  was  decided  that  all  icono- 
graphic  representation  and  all  use  of  symbols  (except 
in  the  Sacrament)  were  blasphemous.  Idolatrous  monu- 
ments were  destroyed,  and  the  iconoclasts  continued 
their  devastations  until  the  death  of  Theophilus  in  842. 
Fortunately  this  wave  of  zeal  was  checked  before  the 
destruction  of  the  mosaics  in  Ravenna  and  Rome,  but 
very  few  specimens  survived  in  France. 

In  the  ninth  century  a great  many  important  monu- 
ments were  added,  and  a majority  of  the  mosaics  which 
may  still  be  seen,  date  from  that  time : they  are  not  first 
in  quality,  however,  although  they  are  more  numerous. 
After  this,  there  was  a period  of  inanition,  in  this  art  as 
in  all  others,  while  the  pseudo-prophets  awaited  the 
ending  of  the  world.  After  the  year  1000  had  passed, 
and  the  astonished  people  found  that  they  were  still 
alive,  and  that  the  world  appeared  as  stable  as  formerly, 
interest  began  to  revive,  and  the  new  birth  of  art  pro- 
duced some  significant  examples  in  the  field  of  mosaic. 
There  was  some  activity  in  Germany,  for  a time,  the 
versatile  Bishop  Bernward  of  Hildesheim  adding  this 


318  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


craft  to  his  numerous  accomplishments,  although  it  is 
probable  that  his  works  resembled  the  graffiti  and  inlaid 
work  rather  than  the  mosaics  composed  of  cubes  of  smalt. 

At  the  Monastery  of  Monte  Cassino  in  the  eleventh 
century  was  an  interesting  personality,  — the  Abbe 
Didier,  its  Superior.  About  1066  he  brought  workers 
from  Constantinople,  who  decorated  the  apse  and  walls 
of  the  basilica  under  his  direction.  At  the  same  time, 
he  established  a school  at  the  monastery,  and  the  young 
members  were  instructed  in  the  arts  and  crafts  of  mosaic 
and  inlay,  and  the  illumination  of  books.  Greek  in- 
fluence was  thus  carried  into  Italy  through  Monte 
Cassino. 

In  the  twelfth  century  the  celebrated  Suger  of  St. 
Denis  decorated  one  of  the  porches  of  his  church  with 
mosaic,  in  smalt,  marbles,  and  gold;  animal  and  human 
forms  were  introduced  in  the  ornament.  But  this  may 
not  have  been  work  actually  executed  on  the  spot, 
for  another  narrator  tells  us  that  Suger  brought  home 
from  Italy,  on  one  of  his  journeys,  a mosaic,  which  was 
placed  over  the  door  at  St.  Denis;  as  it  is  no  longer  in 
its  position,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  which  account 
is  correct. 

The  mosaics  at  St.  Mark’s  in  Venice  were  chiefly  the 
work  of  two  centuries  and  a half.  Greek  artists  were 
employed  in  the  main,  bringing  their  own  tesserae  and 
marbles.  In  1204  there  was  special  activity  in  this  line, 
at  the  time  when  the  Venetians  took  Constantinople. 
After  this,  an  establishment  for  making  the  smalts  and 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


319 


gold  glass  was  set  up  at  Murano,  and  Venice  no  longer 
imported  its  material. 

The  old  Cathedral  at  Torcello  has  one  of  the  most 
perfect  examples  of  the  twelfth  century  mosaic  in  the 
world.  The  entire  west  end  of  the  church  is  covered 
with  a rich  display  of  figures  and  Scriptural  scenes. 
A very  lurid  Hell  is  exhibited  at  the  lower  corner,  in 
the  depths  of  which  are  seen  stewing,  several  Saracens, 
with  large  hoop  earrings.  Their  faces  are  highly  express- 
ive of  discomfort.  This  mosaic  is  full  of  genuine  feeling; 
one  of  the  subjects  is  Amphitrite  riding  a seahorse,  among 
those  who  rise  to  the  surface  when  “ the  sea  gives  up 
its  dead.”  The  Redeemed  are  seen  crowding  round 
Abraham,  who  holds  one  in  his  bosom;  they  are  like 
an  infant  class,  and  are  dressed  in  uniform  pinafores, 
intended  to  look  like  little  ecclesiastical  vestments! 
The  Dead  who  are  being  given  up  by  the  Earth  are 
being  vomited  forth  by  wild  animals  — this  is  original, 
and  I believe,  almost  the  only  occasion  on  which  this 
form  of  literal  resurrection  is  represented. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  a large  number  of  mosaic 
artists  appeared  in  Florence,  many  of  whose  names  and 
histories  are  available.  In  the  Baptistery,  Andrea 
Tafi,  who  lived  between  1213  and  1294,  decorated  the 
cupola.  With  him  were  two  assistants  who  are  known 
by  name  — Apollonius  a Greek,  which  in  part  accounts 
for  the  stiff  Byzantine  figures  in  this  work,  and  another 
who  has  left  his  signature,  “ Jacobus  Sancti  Francisci 
Frater  ” — evidently  a monastic  craftsman.  Gaddo 


320  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Gaddi  also  assisted  in  this  work,  executing  the  Prophets 
which  occur  under  the  windows,  and  professing  to  com- 
bine in  his  style  “ the  Greek  manner  and  that  of  Cima- 
bue.”  Apollonius  taught  Andrea  Tafi  how  to  compose 
the  smalt  and  to  mix  the  cement,  but  this  latter  was 
evidently  unsuccessful,  for  in  the  next  century  the 
mosaic  detached  itself  and  fell  badly,  when  Agnolo 
Gaddi,  the  grandson  of  Gaddo,  was  engaged  to  restore 
it.  Tafi,  Gaddi,  and  Jacobus  were  considered  as  a 
promising  firm,  and  they  undertook  other  large  works 
in  mosaic.  They  commenced  the  apse  at  Pisa,  which 
was  finished  in  1321  by  Vicini,  Cimabue  designing  the 
colossal  figure  of  Christ  which  thus  dominates  the 
cathedral. 

Vasari  says  that  Andrea  Tafi  was  considered  “ an 
excellent,  nay,  a divine  artist  ” in  his  specialty.  Andrea, 
himself  more  modest,  visited  Venice,  and  deigned  to  take 
instruction  from  Greek  mosaic  workers,  who  were 
employed  at  St.  Mark’s.  One  of  them,  Apollonius, 
became  attached  to  Tafi,  and  this  is  how  he  came  to 
accompany  him  to  Florence.  The  work  on  the  Bap- 
tistery was  done  actually  in  situ,  every  cube  being  set 
directly  in  the  plaster.  The  work  is  still  extant,  and  the 
technical  and  constructive  features  are  perfect,  since 
their  restoration.  It  is  amusing  to  read  Vasari’s  patron- 
izing account  of  Tafi;  from  the  late  Renaissance  point 
of  view,  the  mosaic  worker  seemed  to  be  a barbarous 
Goth  at  best:  “ The  good  fortune  of  Andrea  was  really 
great,”  says  Vasari,  “ to  be  born  in  an  age  which,  doing 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


321 


all  things  in  the  rudest  manner,  could  value  so  highly 
the  works  of  an  artist  who  really  merited  so  little,  not 
to  say  nothing!  ” 

Gaddo  Gaddi  was  a painstaking  worker  in  mosaic, 
executing  some  works  on  a small  scale  entirely  in  egg- 
shells of  varying  tints.  In  the  Baroncelli  chapel  in 
Florence  is  a painting  by  Taddeo  Gaddi,  in  which  occur 
the  portraits  of  his  father,  Gaddo  Gaddi,  and  Andrea 
Tafi. 

About  this  time  the  delightful  mosaic  at  St.  Clemente, 
in  Rome,  was  executed.  With  its  central  cross  and 
graceful  vine  decorations,  it  stands  out  unique  among 
the  groups  of  saints  and  seraphs,  of  angels  and  hier- 
archies, of  most  of  the  Roman  apsidal  ornaments.  The 
mosaic  in  the  basilica  of  St.  John  Lateran  is  by  Jacopo 
Torriti.  In  the  design  there  are  two  inconspicuous 
figures,  intentionally  smaller  than  the  others,  of  two 
monks  on  their  knees,  working,  with  measure  and  com- 
pass. These  represent  Jacopo  Torriti  and  his  co-worker, 
Camerino.  One  of  them  is  inscribed  (translated) 
“ Jacopo  Torriti,  painter,  did  this  work/7  and  the  other, 
“ Brother  Jacopo  Camerino,  companion  of  the  master 
worker,  commends  himself  to  the  blessed  John.”  The 
tools  and  implements  used  by  mosaic  artists  are  repre- 
sented in  the  hands  of  these  two  monks.  Torriti  was 
apparently  a greater  man  in  some  respects  than  his 
contemporaries.  He  based  his  art  rather  on  Roman 
than  Greek  tradition,  and  his  works  exhibit  less  Byzan- 
tine formality  than  many  mosaics  of  the  period.  On 


322  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


the  apse  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore  there  appears  a signa- 
ture, “ Jacopo  Torriti  made  this  work  in  mosaic.” 
Gaddo  Gaddi  also  added  a composition  below  the  vault, 
about  1308. 

The  well-known  mosaic  called  the  Navicella  in  the 
atrium  of  St.  Peter’s,  Rome,  was  originally  made  by 
Giotto.  It  has  been  much  restored  and  altered,  but 
some  of  the  original  design  undoubtedly  remains. 
Giotto  went  to  Rome  to  undertake  this  work  in  1298; 
but  the  present  mosaic  is  largely  the  restoration  of 
Bernini,  who  can  hardly  be  considered  as  a sympathetic 
interpreter  of  the  early  Florentine  style.  Vasari  speaks 
of  the  Navicella  as  “ a truly  wonderful  work,  and 
deservedly  eulogized  by  all  enlightened  judges.”  He 
marvels  at  the  way  in  which  Giotto  has  produced  har- 
mony and  interchange  of  light  and  shade  so  cleverly: 
“ with  mere  pieces  of  glass  ” (Vasari  is  so  naively  over- 
whelmed with  ignorance  when  he  comes  to  deal  with 
handicraft  ) especially  on  the  large  sail  of  the  boat. 

In  Venice,  the  Mascoli  chapel  was  ornamented  by 
scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  in  1430.  The  artist 
was  Michele  Zambono,  who  designed  and  superintended 
the  work  himself.  At  Or  San  Michele  in  Florence,  the 
painter  Peselli,  or  Guliano  Arrigo,  decorated  the  taber- 
nacle, in  1416.  Among  other  artists  who  entered  the 
field  of  mosaic,  were  Baldovinetti  and  Domenico  Ghir- 
landajo,  the  painter  who  originated  the  motto:  “The 
only  painting  for  eternity  is  mosaic.” 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  art  of  mosaic  ceased  to 


7 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


323 


observe  due  limitations.  The  ideal  was  to  reproduce 
exactly  in  mosaic  such  pictures  as  were  prepared  by 
Titian,  Pordenone,  Raphael,  and  other  realistic  painters. 
Georges  Sand,  in  her  charming  novel,  “ Les  Maitres 
Mosaistes,”  gives  one  the  atmosphere  of  the  workshops 
in  Venice  in  this  later  period.  Tintoretto  and  Zuccato, 
the  aged  painter,  are  discussing  the  durability  of  mo- 
saic:— “ Since  it  resists  so  well/7  says  Zuccato,  “ how 
comes  it  that  the  Seignory  is  repairing  all  the  domes 
of  St.  Mark’s,  which  to-day  are  as  bare  as  my  skull?  ” 
To  which  Tintoretto  makes  answer:  “ Because  at  the 
time  when  tney  were  decorated  with  mosaics,  Greek 
artists  were  scarce  in  Venice.  They  came  from  a dis- 
tance, and  remained  but  a short  time : their  apprentices 
were  hastily  trained,  and  executed  the  works  entrusted 
to  them  without  knowing  their  business,  and  without 
being  able  to  give  them  the  necessary  solidity.  Now 
that  this  art  has  been  cultivated  in  Venice,  century 
after  century,  we  have  become  as  skilful  as  even  the 
Greeks  were.”  The  two  sons  of  Zuccato,  who  are  en- 
gaged in  this  work,  confide  to  each  other  their  trials 
and  difficulties  in  the  undertaking:  like  artists  of  all 
ages,  they  cannot  easily  convince  their  patrons  that 
they  comprehend  their  art  better  than  their  employers ! 
Francesco  complains  of  the  Procurator,  who  is  com- 
missioned to  examine  the  work:  “He  is  not  an  artist. 
He  sees  in  mosaic  only  an  application  of  particles  more 
or  less  brilliant.  Perfection  of  tone,  beauty  of  design, 
ingenuity  of  composition,  are  nothing  to  him.  . . . Did 


324  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


I not  try  in  vain  the  other  day  to  make  him  understand 
that  the  old  pieces  of  gilded  crystal  used  by  our  ancestors 
and  a little  tarnished  by  time,  were  more  favourable  to 
colour  than  those  manufactured  to-day?  ” “ Indeed,  you 
make  a mistake,  Messer  Francesco,”  said  he,  “ in  hand- 
ing over  to  the  Bianchini  all  the  gold  of  modern  manu- 
facture. The  Commissioners  have  decided  that  the  old 
will  do  mixed  with  the  new.”  . . . “ But  did  I not 
in  vain  try  to  make  him  understand  that  this  brilliant 
gold  would  hurt  the  faces,  and  completely  ruin  the  effect 
of  colour?  ”...  The  answer  of  the  Procurator  was,“  The 
Bianchini  do  not  scruple  to  use  it,  and  their  mosaics 
please  the  eye  much  better  than  yours,”  so  his  brother 
Valerio,  laughing,  asks,  “ What  need  of  worrying  yourself 
after  such  a decision  as  that?  Suppress  the  shadows, 
cut  a breadth  of  material  from  a great  plate  of  enamel 
and  lay  it  over  the  breast  of  St.  Nicaise,  render  St. 
Cecilia’s  beautiful  hair  with  a badly  cut  tile,  a pretty 
lamb  for  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Commission 
will  double  your  salary  and  the  public  clap  its  hands. 
Really,  my  brother,  you  who  dream  of  glory,  I do  not 
understand  how  you  can  pledge  yourself  to  the  worship 
of  art.”  “ I dream  of  glory,  it  is  true,”  replied  Francesco, 
“ but  of  a glory  that  is  lasting,  not  the  vain  popularity 
of  a day.  I should  like  to  leave  an  honoured  name,  if 
not  an  illustrious  one,  and  make  those  who  examine 
the  cupolas  of  St.  Mark’s  five  hundred  years  hence 
say,  1 This  was  the  work  of  a conscientious  artist.’  ” 
A description  follows  of  the  scene  of  the  mosaic  workers 


[JgKft! 



- ..JiJr*  --  -J 

mmmmm 

rrr.4: 

MOSAIC  IN  BAS  - RELIEF, 


NAPLES 


Inlay  and  Mosaic 


325 


pursuing  their  calling.  “ Here  was  heard  abusive 
language,  there  the  joyous  song;  further  on,  the  jest; 
above,  the  hammer:  below,  the  trowel:  now  the  dull 
and  continuous  thud  of  the  tampon  on  the  mosaics, 
and  anon  the  clear  and  crystal  like  clicking  of  the  glass- 
ware rolling  from  the  baskets  on  to  the  pavement,  in 
waves  of  rubies  and  emeralds.  Then  the  fearful  grating 
of  the  scraper  on  the  cornice,  and  finally  the  sharp  rasp- 
ing cry  of  the  saw  in  the  marble,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
low  masses  said  at  the  end  of  the  chapel  in  spite  of  the 
racket.” 

The  Zuccati  were  very  independent  skilled  workmen, 
as  well  as  being  able  to  design  their  own  subjects. 
They  were,  in  the  judgment  of  Georges  Sand,  superior 
to  another  of  the  masters  in  charge  of  the  works,  Bozza, 
who  was  less  of  a man,  although  an  artist  of  some  merit. 
Later  than  these  men,  there  were  few  mosaic  workers 
of  high  standing;  in  Florence  the  art  degenerated  into 
a mere  decorative  inlay  of  semi-precious  material, 
heraldic  in  feeling,  costly  and  decorative,  but  an  entirely 
different  art  from  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
Lapis-lazuli  with  gold  veinings,  malachite,  coral,  ala- 
baster, and  rare  marbles  superseded  the  smalts  and  gold 
of  an  elder  day. 


CHAPTER  XI 


ILLUMINATION  OF  BOOKS 

One  cannot  enter  a book  shop  or  a library  to-day  with- 
out realizing  how  many  thousands  of  books  are  in  con- 
stant circulation.  There  was  an  age  when  books  were 
laboriously  but  most  beautifully  written,  instead  of 
being  thus  quickly  manufactured  by  the  aid  of  the  type- 
setting machine;  the  material  on  which  the  glossy  text 
was  executed  was  vellum  instead  of  the  cheap  paper 
of  to-day,  the  illustrations,  instead  of  being  easily  repro- 
duced by  photographic  processes,  were  veritable  minia- 
ture paintings,  most  decorative,  ablaze  with  colour 
and  fine  gold,  — in  these  times  it  is  easy  to  forget  that 
there  was  ever  a period  when  the  making  of  a single  book 
occupied  years,  and  sometimes  the  life-time  of  one  or  two 
men. 

In  those  days,  when  the  transcription  of  books  was 
one  of  the  chief  occupations  in  religious  houses,  the 
recluse  monk,  in  the  quiet  of  the  scriptorium,  was, 
in  spite  of  his  seclusion,  and  indeed,  by  reason  of  it, 
the  chief  link  between  the  world  of  letters  and  the 
world  of  men. 


326 


Illumination  of  Books 


327 


The  earliest  known  example  of  work  by  a European 
monk  dates  from  the  year  517;  but  shortly  after  this 
there  was  a great  increase  in  book  making,  and  monas- 
teries were  founded  especially  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
petuating literature.  The  first  establishment  of  this 
sort  was  the  monastery  of  Vivaria,  in  Southern  Italy, 
founded  by  Cassiodorus,  a Greek  who  lived  between 
the  years  479  and  575,  and  who  had  been  the  scribe 
(or  “ private  secretary”)  of  Theodoric  the  Goth.  About 
the  same  time,  St.  Columba  in  Ireland  founded  a hotise 
with  the  intention  of  multiplying  books,  so  that  in  the 
sixth  century,  in  both  the  extreme  North  and  in  the 
South,  the  religious  orders  had  commenced  the  great 
work  of  preserving  for  future  ages  the  literature  of  the 
past  and  of  their  own  times. 

Before  examining  the  books  themselves,  it  will  be 
interesting  to  observe  the  conditions  under  which  the 
work  was  accomplished.  Sometimes  the  scriptorium 
was  a large  hall  or  studio,  with  various  desks  about; 
sometimes  the  North  walk  of  the  cloister  was  divided 
into  little  cells,  called  “ carrels,”  in  each  of  which  was 
room  for  the  writer,  his  desk,  and  a little  shelf  for  his 
inks  and  colours.  These  carrels  may  be  seen  in  unusual 
perfection  in  Gloucester.  In  very  cold  weather  a small 
brazier  of  charcoal  was  also  introduced. 

Cassiodorus  writes  thus  of  the  privilege  of  being  a 
copyist  of  holy  books.  “ He  may  fill  his  mind  with  the 
Scriptures  while  copying  the  sayings  of  the  Lord ; with 
his  fingers  he  gives  life  to  men  and  arms  against  the 


328  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


wiles  of  the  Devil;  as  the  antiquarius  copies  the  word 
of  Christ,  so  many  wounds  does  he  inflict  upon  Satan. 
What  he  writes  in  his  cell  will  be  carried  far  and  wide 
over  distant  provinces.  Man  multiplies  the  word  of 
Heaven:  if  I may  dare  so  to  speak,  the  three  fingers 
of  his  right  hand  are  made  to  represent  the  utterances 
of  the  Holy  Trinity.  The  fast  travelling  reed  writes 
down  the  holy  words,  thus  avenging  the  malice  of  the 
wicked  one,  who  caused  a reed  to  be  used  to  smite  the 
head  of  the  Saviour.” 

When  the  scriptorium  was  consecrated,  these  words 
were  used  (and  they  would  be  most  fitting  words  to-day, 
in  the  consecration  of  libraries  or  class  rooms  which 
are  to  be  devoted  to  religious  study)  : “ Vouchsafe, 
0,  Lord,  to  bless  this  workroom  of  thy  servants,  that 
all  which  they  write  therein  may  be  comprehended  by 
their  intelligence,  and  realized  by  their  work.”  Scrip- 
torium work  was  considered  equal  to  labour  in  the  fields. 
In  the  Rule  of  St.  Fereol,  in  the  sixth  century,  there  is 
this  clause:  “ He  who  doth  not  turn  up  the  earth  with 
his  plough,  ought  to  write  the  parchment  with  his 
fingers.”  The  Capitulary  of  Charlemagne  contains 
this  phrase:  “ Do  not  permit  your  scribes  or  pupils, 
either  in  reading  or  writing,  to  garble  the  text;  when 
you  are  preparing  copies  of  the  Gospels,  the  Psalter, 
or  the  Missal,  see  that  the  work  is  confided  to  men  of 
mature  age,  who  will  write  with  due  care.”  Some  of 
the  scribes  were  prolific  book  transcribers.  Jacob  of 
Breslau,  who  died  in  1480,  copied  so  many  books  that 


Illumination  of  Books 


329 


it  is  said  that  “ six  horses  could  with  difficulty  bear  the 
burden  of  them!  ” 

The  work  of  each  scriptorium  was  devoted  first  to 
the  completion  of  the  library  of  the  individual  monastery, 
and  after  that,  to  other  houses,  or  to  such  patrons  as 
were  rich  enough  to  order  books  to  be  transcribed  for 
their  own  use.  The  library  of  a monastery  was  as  much 
a feature  as  the  scriptorium.  The  monks  were  not  like 
the  rising  literary  man,  who,  when  asked  if  he  had  read 
“ Pendennis  ” replied,  “No  — I never  read  books  — 
I write  them.”  Every  scribe  was  also  a reader.  There 
was  a regular  system  of  lending  books  from  the  central 
store.  A librarian  was  in  charge,  and  every  monk  was 
supposed  to  have  some  book  which  he  was  engaged  in 
reading  “ straight  through  ” as  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict 
enjoins,  just  as  much  as  the  one  which  he  was  writing. 
As  silence  was  obligatory  in  the  scriptorium  and  library, 
as  well  as  in  the  cloisters,  they  were  forced  to  apply  for 
the  volumes  which  they  desired  by  signs.  For  a general 
work,  the  sign  was  to  extend  the  hand  and  make  a 
movement  as  if  turning  over  the  leaves  of  a book. 
If  a Missal  was  wanted,  the  sign  of  the  cross  was  added 
to  the  same  form;  for  a Gospel,  the  sign  of  the  cross  was 
made  upon  the  forehead,  while  those  who  wished  tracts 
to  read,  should  lay  one  hand  on  the  mouth  and  the  other 
on  the  stomach;  a Capitulary  was  indicated  by  the 
gesture  of  raising  the  clasped  hands  to  heaven,  while  a 
Psalter  could  be  obtained  by  raising  the  hands  above 
the  head  in  the  form  of  a crown.  As  the  good  brothers 


330  Arts  and  Crafts  in  tjie  Middle  Ages 


were  not  possessed  of  much  religious  charity,  they  in- 
dicated a secular  book  by  scratching  their  ears,  as  dogs 
are  supposed  to  do,  to  imply  the  suggestion  that  the 
infidel  who  wrote  such  a book  was  no  better  than  a dog! 

This  extract  is  made  from  a book  in  one  of  the  early 
monastic  libraries.  “ Oh,  Lord,  send  the  blessing  of  thy 
Holy  Spirit  upon  these  books,  that,  cleansing  them  from 
all  earthly  things,  they  may  mercifully  enlighten  our 
hearts,  and  give  us  true  understanding,  and  grant  that 
by  their  teaching  they  may  brightly  preserve  and  make  a 
full  abundance  of  good  works  according  to  Thy  will.” 
The  books  were  kept  in  cupboards,  with  doors;  in  the 
Customs  of  the  Augustine  Priory  of  Barnwell,  these 
directions  are  given:  “ The  press  in  which  the  books  are 
kept  ought  to  be  lined  with  wood,  that  the  damp  of  the 
walls  may  not  moisten  or  stain  the  books.  The  press 
should  be  divided  vertically  as  well  as  horizontally, 
by  sundry  partitions,  on  which  the  books  may  be  ranged 
so  as  to  be  separated  from  one  another,  for  fear  they 
be  packed  so  close  as  to  injure  one  another,  or  to  delay 
those  who  want  them.” 

We  read  of  the  “ chained  books  ” of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  I think  there  is  a popular  belief  that  this  referred 
to  the  fact  that  the  Bible  was  kept  in  the  priest's  hands, 
and  chained  so  that  the  people  should  not  be  able  to  read 
it  for  themselves  and  become  familiar  with  every  part 
of  it.  This,  however,  is  a mistake.  It  was  the  books  in 
the  libraries  which  were  chained,  so  that  dishonest 
people  should  not  make  way  with  them ! In  one  Chapter 


Illumination  of  Books 


331 


Library,  there  occurs  a denunciation  of  such  thieves, 
and  instructions  how  to  fasten  the  volumes.  It  reads 
as  follows:  “ Since  to  the  great  reproach  of  the  Nation, 
and  a greater  one  to  our  Holy  Religion,  the  thievish 
disposition  of  some  who  enter  libraries  to  learn  no  good 
there,  hath  made  it  necessary  to  secure  the  sacred  vol- 
umes themselves  with  chains  (which  are  better  deserved 
by  those  ill  persons,  who  have  too  much  learning  to 
be  hanged,  and  too  little  to  be  honest),  care  shall  be 
taken  that  the  chains  should  neither  be  too  long  nor 
too  clumsy,  more  than  the  use  of  them  requires:  and 
that  the  loops  whereby  they  are  fastened  to  the  books 
may  be  rivetted  on  such  a part  of  the  cover,  and  so 
smoothly,  as  not  to  gall  or  graze  the  books,  while  they 
are  moved  to  or  from  their  respective  places.  And  for- 
asmuch as  the  more  convenient  way  to  place  books  in 
libraries  is  to  turn  their  backs  out  showing  the  title  and 
other  decent  ornaments  in  gilt  work  which  ought  not  to 
be  hidden,  this  new  method  of  fixing  the  chain  to  the 
back  of  the  book  is  recommended  until  one  more  suit- 
able shall  be  contrived.” 

Numerous  monasteries  in  England  devoted  much  time 
to  scriptorium  work.  In  Gloucester  may  still  be  seen 
the  carrels  of  the  scribes  in  the  cloister  wall,  and  there 
was  also  much  activity  in  the  book  making  art  in  Nor- 
wich, Glastonbury,  and  Winchester,  and  in  other  cities. 
The  two  monasteries  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Swithin  in 
Winchester  were,  the  chronicler  says,  “ so  close  packed 
together,  . . . that  between  the  foundation  of  their 


332  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


respective  buildings  there  was  barely  room  for  a man 
to  pass  along.  The  choral  service  of  one  monastery 
conflicted  with  that  of  the  other,  so  that  both  were 
spoiled,  and  the  ringing  of  their  bells  together  produced 
a horrid  effect,” 

One  of  the  most  important  monasteries  of  early  times, 
on  the  Continent,  was  that  conducted  by  Alcuin,  under 
the  protection  of  Charlemagne.  When  the  appointed 
time  for  writing  came  round,  the  monks  filed  into  the 
scriptorium,  taking  their  places  at  their  desks.  One  of 
their  number  then  stood  in  the  midst,  and  read  aloud, 
slowly,  for  dictation,  the  work  upon  which  they  were 
engaged  as  copyists;  in  this  way,  a score  of  copies  could 
be  made  at  one  time.  Alcuin  himself  would  pass  about 
among  them,  making  suggestions  and  correcting  errors, 
a beautiful  example  of  true  consecration,  the  great 
scholar  spending  his  time  thus  in  supervising  the  tran- 
scription of  the  Word  of  God,  from  a desire  to  have  it 
spread  far  and  wide.  Alcuin  sent  a letter  to  Charle- 
magne, accompanying  a present  of  a copy  of  the  Bible, 
at  the  time  of  the  emperor’s  coronation,  and  from 
this  letter,  which  is  still  preserved,  it  may  be  seen  how 
reverent  a spirit  his  was,  and  how  he  esteemed  the  things 
of  the  spiritual  life  as  greater  than  the  riches  of  the 
world.  “ After  deliberating  a long  while,”  he  writes, 
“ what  the  devotion  of  my  mind  might  find  worthy  of 
a present  equal  to  the  splendour  of  your  Imperial 
dignity,  and  the  increase  of  your  wealth,  — at  length 
by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  I found  what  it 


Illumination  of  Books 


333 


would  be  competent  for  me  to  offer,  and  fitting  for  your 
prudence  to  accept.  For  to  me  inquiring  and  considering, 
nothing  appeared  more  worthy  of  your  peaceful  honour 
than  the  gifts  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  . . . which, 
knit  together  in  the  sanctity  of  one  glorious  body,  and 
diligently  amended,  I have  sent  to  your  royal  authority, 
by  this  your  faithful  son  and  servant,  so  that  with  full 
hands  we  may  assist  at  the  delightful  service  of  your 
dignity.”  One  of  Alcuin’s  mottoes  was:  “Writing 
books  is  better  than  planting  vines:  for  he  who  plants 
a vine  serves  his  belly,  while  he  who  writes  books  serves 
his  soul.” 

Many  different  arts  were  represented  in  the  making 
of  a mediaeval  book.  Of  those  employed,  first  came  the 
scribe,  whose  duty  it  was  to  form  the  black  even  glossy 
letters  with  his  pen;  then  came  the  painter,  who  must 
not  only  be  a correct  draughtsman,  and  an  adept  with 
pencil  and  brush,  but  must  also  understand  how  to 
prepare  mordaunts  and  to  lay  the  gold  leaf,  and  to 
burnish  it  afterwards  with  an  agate,  or,  as  an  old  writer 
directs,  “ a dogge’s  tooth  set  in  a stick.”  After  him,  the 
binder  gathered  the  lustrous  pages  and  put  them  to- 
gether under  silver  mounted  covers,  with  heavy  clasps. 
At  first,  the  illuminations  were  confined  only  to  the 
capital  letters,  and  red  was  the  selected  colour  to  give 
this  additional  life  to  the  evenly  written  page.  The 
red  pigment  was  known  as  “ minium.”  The  artist  who 
applied  this  was  called  a “ miniator,”  and  from  this,  was 
derived  the  term  “ miniature,”  which  later  referred  to 


334  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


the  pictures  executed  in  the  developed’  stages  of  the  art. 
The  use  of  the  word  “ miniature,”  as  applied  to  paintings 
on  a small  scale,  was  evolved  from  this  expression. 


Illumination  of  Books 


335 


The  difficulties  were  numerous.  First,  there  was 
climate  and  temperature  to  consider.  It  was  necessary 
to  be  very  careful  about  the  temperature  to  which  gold 
leaf  was  exposed,  and  in  order  to  dry  the  sizing  properly, 
it  was  important  that  the  weather  should  not  be  too 
damp  nor  too  warm.  Peter  de  St.  Audemar,  writing 
in  the  late  thirteenth  century,  says:  “ Take  notice  that 
you  ought  not  to  work  with  gold  or  colours  in  a damp 
place,  on  account  of  the  hot  weather,  which,  as  it  is 
often  injurious  in  burnishing  gold,  both  to  the  colours  on 
which  the  gold  is  laid  and  also  to  the  gilding,  if  the  work 
is  done  on  parchment,  so  also  it  is  injurious  when  the 
weather  is  too  dry  and  arid.”  John  Acherius,  in  1399, 
observes,  too,  that  “ care  must  be  taken  as  regards  the 
situation,  because  windy  weather  is  a hindrance,  unless 
the  gilder  is  in  an  enclosed  place,  and  if  the  air  is  too 
dry,  the  colour  cannot  hold  the  gold  under  the  bur- 
nisher.” Illumination  is  an  art  which  has  always  been 
difficult;  we  wffio  attempt  it  to-day  are  not  simply  facing 
a lost  art  which  has  become  impossible  because  of  the 
changed  conditions;  even  when  followed  along  the  best 
line  in  the  best  way  the  same  trials  were  encountered. 

Early  treatises  vary  regarding  the  best  medium 
for  laying  leaf  on  parchment.  There  are  very  few 
vehicles  which  will  form  a connecting  and  permanent 
link  between  these  two  substances.  There  is  a general 
impression  that  white  of  egg  was  used  to  hold  the  gold: 
but  any  one  who  has  experimented  knows  that  it  is 
impossible  to  fasten  metal  to  vellum  by  white  of  egg 


336  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


alone.  Both  oil  and  wax  were  often  employed,  and  in 
nearly  all  recipes  the  use  of  glue  made  of  boiled-down 
vellum  is  enjoined.  In  some  of  the  monasteries  there 
are  records  that  the  scribes  had  the  use  of  the  kitchen 
for  drying  parchment  and  melting  wax. 

The  introductions  to  the  early  treatises  show  the 
spirit  in  which  the  work  was  undertaken.  Peter  de  St. 
Audemar  commences:  “By  the  assistance  of  God,  of 
whom  are  all  things  that  are  good,  I will  explain  to  you 
how  to  make  colours  for  painters  and  illuminators  of 
books,  and  the  vehicles  for  them,  and  other  things 
appertaining  thereto,  as  faithfully  as  I can  in  the  follow- 
ing chapters.”  Peter  was  a North  Frenchman  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

Of  the  recipes  given  by  the  early  treatises,  I will  quote 
a few,  for  in  reality  they  are  all  the  literature  we  have 
upon  the  subject.  Eraclius,  who  wrote  in  the  twelfth 
century,  gives  accurate  directions:  “Take  ochre  and 

distemper  it  with  water,  and  let  it  dry.  In  the  meanwhile 
make  glue  with  vellum,  and  whip  some  white  of  egg. 
Then  mix  the  glue  and  the  white  of  egg,  and  grind  the 
ochre,  which  by  this  time  is  well  dried,  upon  a marble 
slab;  and  lay  it  on  the  parchment  with  a paint  brush; 

. . . then  apply  the  gold,  and  let  it  remain  so,  without 
pressing  it  with  the  stone.  When  it  is  dry,  burnish  it 
well  with  a tooth.  This,”  continues  Eraclius  naively, 
“ is  what  I have  learned  by  experiment,  and  have  fre- 
quently proved,  and  you  may  safely  believe  me  that  I 
shall  have  told  you  the  truth.”  This  assurance  of  good 


Illumination  of  Books 


337 


faith  suggests  that  possibly  it  was  a habit  of  illuminators 
to  be  chary  of  information,  guarding  their  own  dis- 
coveries carefully,  and  only  giving  out  partial  directions 
to  others  of  their  craft. 

In  the  Bolognese  Manuscript,  one  is  directed  to  make 
a simple  size  from  incense,  white  gum,  and  sugar  candy, 
distempering  it  with  wine;  and  in  another  place,  to  use 
the  white  of  egg,  whipped  with  the  milk  of  the  fig  tree 
and  powdered  gum  Arabic.  Armenian  Bole  is  a favourite 
ingredient.  Gum  and  rose  water  are  also  prescribed,  and 
again,  gesso,  white  of  egg,  and  honey.  All  of  these 
recipes  sound  convincing,  but  if  one  tries  them  to-day, 
one  has  the  doubtful  pleasure  of  seeing  the  carefully 
laid  gold  leaf  slide  off  as  soon  as  the  whole  mixture  is 
quite  dry.  Especially  improbable  is  the  recipe  given 
in  the  Brussels  Manuscript:  “ You  lay  on  gold  with  well 
gummed  water  alone,  and  this  is  very  good  for  gilding  on 
parchment.  You  may  also  use  fresh  white  of  egg  or 
fig  juice  alone  in  the  same  manner.” 

Theophilus  does  not  devote  much  time  or  space  to 
the  art  of  illuminating,  for,  as  he  is  a builder  of  every- 
thing from  church  organs  to  chalices,  glass  windows, 
and  even  to  frescoed  walls,  we  must  not  expect  too  much 
information  on  minor  details.  He  does  not  seem  to 
direct  the  use  of  gold  leaf  at  all,  but  of  finely  ground  gold, 
which  shall  be  applied  with  its  size  in  the  form  of  a paste, 
to  be  burnished  later.  He  says  (after  directing  that 
the  gold  dust  shall  be  placed  in  a shell) : “ Take  pure 
minium  and  add  to  it  a third  part  of  cinnibar,  grinding 


338  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


it  upon  a stone  with  water.  Which,  being  carefully 
ground,  beat  up  the  clear  white  of  an  egg,  in  summer 
with  water,  in  winter  without  water,”  and  this  is  to  be 
used  as  a slightly  raised  bed  for  the  gold.  “ Then,” 
he  continues,  “ place  a little  pot  of  glue  on  the  fire,  and 
when  it  is  liquefied,  pour  it  into  the  shell  of  gold  and  wash 
it  with  it.”  This  is  to  be  painted  on  to  the  gesso  ground 
just  mentioned,  and  when  quite  dry,  burnished  with  an 
agate.  This  recipe  is  more  like  the  modern  Florentine 
method  of  gilding  in  illumination. 

Concerning  the  gold  itself,  there  seem  to  have  been 
various  means  employed  for  manufacturing  substitutes 
for  the  genuine  article.  A curious  recipe  is  given  in  the 
manuscript  of  Jehan  de  Begue,  “ Take  bulls’  brains,  put 
them  in  a marble  vase,  and  leave  them  for  three  weeks, 
when  you  will  find  gold  making  worms.  Preserve  them 
carefully.”  More  quaint  and  superstitious  is  Theophilus’ 
recipe  for  making  Spanish  Gold;  but,  as  this  is  not 
quotable  in  polite  pages,  the  reader  must  refer  to  the 
original  treatise  if  he  cares  to  trace  its  manufacture. 

Brushes  made  of  hair  are  recommended  by  the  Brussels 
manuscript,  with  a plea  for  “ pencils  of  fishes’  hairs  for 
softening.”  If  this  does  not  refer  to  sealskin,  it  is  food 
for  conjecture! 

And  for  the  binding  of  these  beautiful  volumes,  how 
was  the  leather  obtained?  This  is  one  way  in  which 
business  and  sport  could  be  combined  in  the  monastery, 
Warton  says,  “ About  the  year  790,  Charlemagne 
granted  an  unlimited  right  of  hunting  to  the  Abbot 


Illumination  of  Books 


339 


and  monks  of  Sithiu,  for  making  ...  of  the  skins  of  the 
deer  they  killed  . . . covers  for  their  books.”  There 
is  no  doubt  that  it  had  occurred  to  artists  to  experiment 
upon  human  skin,  and  perhaps  the  fact  that  this  was 
an  unsatisfactory  texture  is  the  chief  reason  why  no 
books  were  made  of  it.  A French  commentator  observes : 
“ The  skin  of  a man  is  nothing  compared  with  the  skin  of 
a sheep.  . . . Sheep  is  good  for  writing  on  both  sides, 
but  the  skin  of  a dead  man  is  just  about  as  profitable 
as  his  bones,  — better  bury  him,  skin  and  bones  to- 
gether/J 

There  was  some  difficulty  in  obtaining  manuscripts 
to  copy.  The  Breviary  was  usually  enclosed  in  a cage; 
rich  parishioners  were  bribed  by  many  masses  and 
prayers,  to  bequeath  manuscripts  to  churches.  In  old 
Paris,  the  Parchment  Makers  were  a guild  of  much  im- 
portance. Often  they  combined  their  trade  with  tavern 
keeping,  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  The 
Rector  of  the  University  was  glad  when  this  occurred, 
for  the  inn  keeper  and  parchment  maker  was  under  his 
control,  both  being  obliged  to  reside  in  the  Pays  Latin. 
Bishops  were  known  to  exhort  the  parchment  makers, 
from  the  pulpit,  to  be  honest  and  conscientious  in  pre- 
paring skins.  A bookseller,  too,  was  solemnly  made 
to  swear  “ faithfully  to  receive,  take  care  of,  and  ex- 
pose for  sale  the  works  which  should  be  entrusted  to 
him.”  He  might  not  buy  them  for  himself  until  they 
had  been  for  sale  a full  month  “ at  the  disposition  of 
the  Masters  and  Scholars.”  But  in  return  for  these 


340  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

restrictions,  the  bookseller  was  admitted  to  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  University.  As  clients  of  the 
University,  these  trades,  which  were  associated  with 
book  making,  joined  in  the  “ solemn  processions  ” of 
those  times;  booksellers,  binders,  parchment  makers, 
and  illuminators,  all  marched  together  on  these  occasions. 
They  were  obliged  to  pay  toll  to  the  Rector  for  these 
privileges;  the  recipe  for  ink  was  a carefully  guarded 
secret. 

It  now  becomes  our  part  to  study  the  books  them- 
selves, and  see  what  results  were  obtained  by  applying 
all  the  arts  involved  in  their  making. 

The  transition  from  the  Roman  illuminations  to  the 
Byzantine  may  be  traced  to  the  time  when  Constantine 
moved  his  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  Constanti- 
nople. Constantinople  then  became  the  centre  of  learn- 
ing, and  books  were  written  there  in  great  numbers. 
For  some  centuries  Constantinople  was  the  chief  city  in 
the  art  of  illuminating.  The  style  that  here  grew  up  ex- 
hibited the  same  features  that  characterized  Byzantine 
art  in  mosaic  and  decoration.  The  Oriental  influence  dis- 
played itself  in  a lavish  use  of  gold  and  colour;  the  rem- 
nant of  Classical  art  was  slight,  but  may  sometimes  be 
detected  in  the  subjects  chosen,  and  the  ideas  embodied. 
The  Greek  influence  was  the  strongest.  But  the  Greek 
art  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  was  not  at  all 
like  the  Classic  art  of  earlier  Greece;  a conventional 
type  had  entered  with  Christianity,  and  is  chiefly 
recognized  by  a stubborn  conformity  to  precedent.  It 


Illumination  of  Books 


341 


is  difficult  to  date  a Byzantine  picture  or  manuscript, 
for  the  same  severe  hard  form  that  prevailed  in  the  days 
of  Constantine  is  carried  on  to-day  by  the  monks  of  Mt. 
Athos,  and  a Byzantine  work  of  the  ninth  century  is 
not  easily  distinguished  from  one  of  the  fifteenth.  In 
manuscripts,  the  caligraphy  is  often  the  only  feature 
by  which  the  work  can  be  dated. 

In  the  earlier  Byzantine  manuscripts  there  is  a larger 
proportion  of  Classical  influence  than  in  later  ones, 
when  the  art  had  taken  on  its  inflexible  uniformity 
of  design.  One  of  the  most  interesting  books  in  which 
this  classical  influence  may  be  seen  is  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Vienna,  being  a work  on  Botany,  by  Dios- 
corides,  written  about  400  A.  d.  The  miniatures  in  this 
manuscript  have  many  of  the  characteristics  of  Roman 
work. 

The  pigments  used  in  Byzantine  manuscripts  are  glossy, 
a great  deal  of  ultramarine  being  used.  The  high  lights 
are  usually  of  gold,  applied  in  sharp  glittering  lines, 
and  lighting  up  the  picture  with  very  decorative  effect. 
In  large  wall  mosaics  the  same  characteristics  may  be 
noted,  and  it  is  often  suggested  that  these  gold  lines  may 
have  originated  in  an  attempt  to  imitate  cloisonne 
enamel,  in  which  the  fine  gold  line  separates  the  different 
coloured  spaces  one  from  another.  This  theory  is  quite 
plausible,  as  cloisonne  was  made  by  the  Byzantine 
goldsmiths. 

M.  Lecoy  de  la  Marche  tells  us  that  the  first  recorded 
name  of  an  illuminator  is  that  of  a woman  — Lala  de 


342  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


Cizique,  a Greek,  who  painted  on  ivory  and  on  parch- 
ment in  Rome  during  the  first  Christian  century.  But 
such  a long  period  elapses  between  her  time  and  that 
which  we  are  about  to  study,  that  she  can  here  occupy 
only  the  position  of  being  referred  to  as  an  interesting 
isolated  case. 

The  Byzantine  is  a very  easy  style  to  recognize,  be- 
cause of  the  inflexible  stiffness  of  the  figures,  depending 
for  any  beauty  largely  upon  the  use  of  burnished  gold, 
and  the  symmetrical  folds  of  the  draperies,  which  often 
show  a sort  of  archaic  grace.  Byzantine  art  is  not  so 
much  representation  as  suggestion  and  symbolism. 
There  is  a book  which  may  still  be  consulted,  called 
“ A Byzantine  Guide  to  Painting,”  which  contains 
accurate  recipes  to  be  followed  in  painting  pictures 
of  each  saint,  the  colours  prescribed  for  the  dress  of  the 
Virgin,  and  the  grouping  to  be  adopted  in  representing 
each  of  the  standard  Scriptural  scenes;  and  it  has  hardly 
from  the  first  occurred  to  any  Byzantine  artist  to  depart 
from  these  regulations.  The  heads  and  faces  lack  in- 
dividuality, and  are  outlined  and  emphasized  with  hard, 
unsympathetic  black  lines;  the  colouring  is  sallow  and 
the  expression  stolid.  Any  attempt  at  delineating 
emotion  is  grotesque,  and  grimacing.  The  beauty, 
for  in  spite  of  all  these  drawbacks  there  is  great  beauty, 
in  Byzantine  manuscripts,  is,  as  has  been  indicated,  a 
charm  of  colour  and  gleaming  gold  rather  than  of  de- 
sign. In  the  Boston  Art  Museum  there  is  a fine  example 
of  a large  single  miniature  of  a Byzantine  “ Flight  into 


Illumination  of  Books 


343 


Egypt/’  in  which  the  gold  background  is  of  the  highest 
perfection  of  surface,  and  is  raised  so  as  to  appear  like 
a plate  of  beaten  gold. 

There  is  no  attempt  to  portray  a scene  as  it  might 
have  occurred;  the  rule  given  in  the  Manual  is  followed, 
and  the  result  is  generally  about  the  same.  The  back- 
ground is  usually  either  gold  or  blue,  with  very  little 
effort  at  landscape.  Trees  are  represented  in  flat  values 
of  green  with  little  white  ruffled  edges  and  articulations. 
The  sea  is  figured  by  a blue  surface  with  a symmetrical 
white  pattern  of  a wavy  nature.  A building  is  usually 
introduced  about  half  as  large  as  the  people  surrounding 
it.  There  is  no  attempt,  either,  at  perspective. 

The  anatomy  of  the  human  form  was  not  understood 
at  all.  Nearly  all  the  figures  in  the  art  of  this  period  are 
draped.  Wherever  it  is  necessary  to  represent  the  nude, 
a lank,  disproportioned  person  with  an  indefinite  number 
of  ribs  is  the  result,  proving  that  the  monastic  art 
school  did  not  include  a life  class. 

Most  of  the  best  Byzantine  examples  date  from  the 
fifth  to  the  seventh  centuries.  After  that  a decadence 
set  in,  and  by  the  eleventh  century  the  art  had  deteri- 
orated to  a mere  mechanical  process. 

The  Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon  work  are  chiefly  charac- 
terized in  their  early  stages  by  the  use  of  interlaced  bands 
as  a decorative  motive.  The  Celtic  goldsmiths  were 
famous  for  their  delicate  work  in  filigree,  made  of  threads 
of  gold  used  in  connection  with  enamelled  grounds.  In 
decorating  their  manuscripts,  the  artists  were  perhaps 


344  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


unconsciously  influenced  by  this,  and  the  result  is  a 
marvellous  use  of  conventional  form  and  vivid  colours, 
while  the  human  figure  is  hardly  attempted  at  all,  or, 
when  introduced,  is  so  conventionally  treated,  as  to  be 
only  a sign  instead  of  a representation. 

Probably  the  earliest  representation  of  a pen  in  the 
holder,  although  of  a very  primitive  pattern,  occurs 
in  a miniature  in  the  Gospels  of  Mac  Durnam,  where 
St.  John  is  seen  writing  with  a pen  in  one  hand  and  a 
knife,  for  sharpening  it,  in  the  other.  This  picture  is 
two  centuries  earlier  than  any  other  known  representa- 
tion of  the  use  of  the  pen,  the  volume  having  been 
executed  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century. 

Two  of  the  most  famous  Irish  books  are  the  Book 
of  Kells,  and  the  Durham  Book.  The  Book  of  Kells 
is  now  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  It  is  also  known  as  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Columba.  St.  Columba  came,  as  the  Chron- 
icle of  Ethelwerd  states,  in  the  year  565 : “ five  years  after- 
wards Christ’s  servant  Columba  came  from  Scotia  (Ire- 
land) to  Britain,  to  preach  the  word  of  God  to  the 
Piets.” 

The  intricacy  of  the  interlacing  decoration  is  so 
minute  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe  it.  Each  line 
may  be  followed  to  its  conclusion,  with  the  aid  of  a strong 
magnifying  glass,  but  cannot  be  clearly  traced  with  the 
naked  eye.  Westwood  reports  that,  with  a microscope, 
he  counted  in  one  square  inch  of  the  page,  one  hundred 
and  fifty-eight  interlacements  of  bands,  each  being  of 
white,  bordered  on  either  side  with  a black  line.  In  this 


t*  {juoocs  nmilns 


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DETAIL 


FROM 


THE 


DURHAM 


BOOK 


Illumination  of  Books 


345 


book  there  is  no  use  of  gold,  and  the  treatment  of  the 
human  form  is  most  inadequate.  There  is  no  idea  of 
drawing  except  for  decorative  purposes;  it  is  an  art  of 
the  pen  rather  than  of  the  brush  — it  hardly  comes  into 
the  same  category  as  most  of  the  books  designated  as 
illuminated  manuscripts.  The  so-called  Durham  Book, 
or  the  Gospels  of  St.  Cuthbert,  was  executed  at  the 
Abbey  of  Lindisfarne,  in  688,  and  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  There  is  a legend  that  in  the  ninth  century 
pirates  plundered  the  Abbey,  and  the  few  monks  who 
survived  decided  to  seek  a situation  less  unsafe  than  that 
on  the  coast,  so  they  gathered  up  their  treasures,  the 
body  of  the  saint,  their  patron,  Cuthbert,  and  the  book, 
which  had  been  buried  with  him,  and  set  out  for  new 
lands.  They  set  sail  for  Ireland,  but  a storm  arose,  and 
their  boat  was  swamped.  The  body  and  the  book  were 
lost.  After  reaching  land,  however,  the  fugitives  dis- 
covered the  box  containing  the  book,  lying  high  and  dry 
upon  the  shore,  having  been  cast  up  by  the  waves  in  a 
truly  wonderful  state  of  preservation.  Any  one  who 
knows  the  effect  of  dampness  upon  parchment,  and  how 
it  cockles  the  material  even  on  a damp  day,  will  the  more 
fully  appreciate  this  miracle. 

Giraldus  Cambriensis  went  to  Ireland  as  secretary 
to  Prince  John,  in  1185,  and  thus  describes  the  Gospels 
of  Kildare,  a book  which  was  similar  to  the  Book  of 
Kells,  and  his  description  may  apply  equally  to  either 
volume.  “ Of  all  the  wonders  of  Kildare  I have  found 
nothing  more  wonderful  than  this  marvellous  book, 


346  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


written  in  the  time  of  the  Virgin  St.  Bridget,  and,  as 
they  say,  at  the  dictation  of  an  angel.  Here  you  behold 
the  magic  face  divinely  drawn,  and  there  the  mystical 
forms  of  the  Evangelists,  there  an  eagle,  here  a calf, 
so  closely  wrought  together,  that  if  you  look  carelessly 
at  them,  they  would  seem  rather  like  a uniform  blot 
than  like  an  exquisite  interweavement  of  figures;  ex- 
hibiting  no  perfection  of  skill  or  art,  where  all  is  really 
skill  and  perfection  of  art.  But  if  you  look  closely  a I 
them  with  all  the  acuteness  of  sight  that  you  can  com- 
mand, and  examine  the  inmost  secrets  of  this  wondrous 
art,  you  will  discover  such  delicate,  such  wonderful 
and  finely  wrought  lines,  twisted  and  interwoven  with 
such  intricate  knots  and  adorned  with  such  fresh  and 
brilliant  colours,  that  you  will  readily  acknowledge  the 
whole  to  have  been  the  work  of  angelic  rather  than  human 
skill.” 

At  first  gold  was  not  used  at  all  in  Irish  work,  but  the 
manuscripts  of  a slightly  later  date,  and  especially  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  school,  show  a superbly  decorative  use 
both  of  gold  and  silver.  The  “ Coronation  Oath  Book 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings  ” is  especially  rich  in  this  ex- 
quisite metallic  harmony.  By  degrees,  also,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  became  more  perfected  in  the  portrayal  of  the 
human  figure,  so  that  by  the  twelfth  century  the  work 
of  the  Southern  schools  and  those  of  England  were 
more  alike  than  at  any  previous  time. 

In  the  Northern  manuscripts  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  it  is  amusing  to  note  that  the  bad 


IVY  PATTERN,  FROM  A 14tH  CENTURY  FRENCH  MANUSCRIPT 


Illumination  of  Books 


347 


characters  are  always  represented  as  having  large  hooked 
noses,  which  fact  testifies  to  the  dislike  of  the  Northern 
races  for  the  Italians  and  Southern  peoples. 

The  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  may  be 
considered  to  stand  for  the  “ Golden  Age  ” of  miniature 
art  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  In  England  and 
France  especially  the  illuminated  books  of  the  thirteenth 
century  were  marvels  of  delicate  work,  among  which 
the  Tenison  Psalter  and  the  Psalter  of  Queen  Mary, 
both  in  the  British  Museum,  are  excellent  examples. 
Queen  Mary’s  Psalter  was  not  really  painted  for  Queen 
Mary;  it  was  executed  two  centuries  earlier.  But  it 
was  being  sent  abroad  in  1553,  and  was  seized  by  the 
Customs.  They  refused  to  allow  it  to  pass.  Afterwards 
it  was  presented  to  Queen  Mary. 

At  this  time  grew  up  a most  beautiful  and  decorative 
style,  known  as  “ ivy  pattern,”  consisting  of  little  grace- 
ful flowering  sprays,  with  tiny  ivy  leaves  in  gold  and 
colours.  The  Gothic  feeling  prevails  in  this  motive,  and 
the  foliate  forms  are  full  of  spined  cusps.  The  effect  of 
a book  decorated  in  the  ivy  pattern,  is  radiant  and 
jewelled  as  the  pages  turn,  and  the  burnishing  of  the 
gold  was  brought  to  its  full  perfection  at  this  time. 
The  value  of  the  creamy  surface  of  the  vellum  was  recog- 
nized as  part  of  the  colour  scheme.  With  the  high  polish 
of  the  gold  it  was  necessary  to  use  always  the  strong 
crude  colours,  as  the  duller  tints  would  appear  faded 
by  contrast.  In  the  later  stages  of  the  art,  when  a 
greater  realism  was  attempted,  and  better  drawing  had 


348  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


MEDIEVAL  ILLUMINATION 


Illumination  of  Books 


349 


made  it  necessary  to  use  quieter  tones,  gold  paint  was 
generally  adopted  instead  of  leaf,  as  being  less  con- 
spicuous and  more  in  harmony  with  the  general  scheme; 
and  one  of  the  chief  glories  of  book  decoration  died  in 
this  change. 

The  divergences  of  style  in  the  work  of  various  coun- 
tries are  well  indicated  by  Walter  de  Gray  Birch,  who 
says:  “ The  English  are  famous  for  clearness  and  breadth; 
the  French  for  delicate  fineness  and  harmoniously 
assorted  colours,  the  Flemish  for  minutely  stippled  de- 
tails, and  the  Italian  for  the  gorgeous  yet  calm  dignity 
apparent  in  their  best  manuscripts.”  Individuality  of 
facial  expression,  although  these  faces  are  generally 
ugly,  is  a characteristic  of  Flemish  work,  while  the  faces 
in  French  miniatures  are  uniform  and  pretty. 

One  marked  feature  in  the  English  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  century  books,  is  the  introduction  of  many 
small  grotesques  in  the  borders,  and  these  little  creatures, 
partly  animal  and  partly  human,  show  a keen  sense  of 
humour,  which  had  to  display  itself,  even  though  in- 
appropriately, but  always  with  a true  spirit  of  wit. 
One  might  suppose  on  first  looking  at  these  grotesques, 
that  the  droll  expression  is  unintentional:  that  the 
monks  could  draw  no  better,  and  that  their  sketches  are 
funny  only  because  of  their  inability  to  portray  more 
exactly  the  thing  represented.  But  a closer  examination 
will  convince  one  that  the  wit  was  deliberate,  and  that 
the  very  subtlety  and  reserve  of  their  expression  of 
humour  is  an  indication  of  its  depth.  To-day  an  artist 


350  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


with  the  sense  of  caricature  expresses  himself  in  the 
illustrated  papers  and  other  public  channels  provided 
for  the  overflow  of  high  spirits;  but  the  cloistered  author 
of  the  Middle  Ages  had  only  the  sculptured  details 
and  the  books  belonging  to  the  church  as  vehicles  for 
his  satire.  The  carvings  on  the  miserere  seats  in  choirs  of 
many  cathedrals  were  executed  by  the  monks,  and 
abound  in  witty  representations  of  such  subjects  as 
Reynard  the  Fox,  cats  catching  rats,  etc.;  inspired 
generally  by  the  knowledge  of  some  of  the  inconsist- 
encies in  the  lives  of  ecclesiastical  personages.  The 
quiet  monks  often  became  cynical. 

The  spirit  of  the  times  determines  the  standard  of 
wit.  At  various  periods  in  the  world’s  history,  men 
have  been  amused  by  strange  and  differing  forms  of 
drollery;  what  seemed  excruciatingly  funny  to  our 
grandparents  does  not  strike  us  as  being  at  all  enter- 
taining. Each  generation  has  its  own  idea  of  humour, 
and  its  own  fun-makers,  varying  as  much  as  fashion  in 
dress. 

In  mediaeval  times,  the  sense  of  humour  in  art  was 
more  developed  than  at  any  period  except  our  own  day. 
Even  while  the  monk  was  consecrating  his  time  to  the 
work  of  beautifying  the  sanctuary,  his  sense  of  humour 
was  with  him,  and  must  crop  out.  The  grotesque  has 
always  plajmd  an  important  part  in  art;  in  the  subter- 
ranean Roman  vaults  of  the  early  centuries,  one  form 
of  this  spirit  is  exhibited.  But  the  element  of  wit  is 
almost  absent;  it  is  displayed  in  oppressively  obvious 


Illumination  of  Books 


351 


forms,  so  that  it  loses  its  subtlety : it  represents  women 
terminating  in  floral  scrolls,  or  sea-horses  with  leaves 
growing  instead  of  fins.  The  same  spirit  is  seen  in  the 
grotesques  of  the  Renaissance,  where  the  sense  of  humour 
is  not  emphasized,  the  ideal  in  this  class  of  decoration 
being  simply  to  fill  the  space  acceptably,  with  voluptuous 
graceful  lines,  mythological  monstrosities,  the  inex- 
pressive mingling  of  human  and  vegetable  character- 
istics, grinning  dragons,  supposed  to  inspire  horror, 
and  such  conceits,  while  the  attempt  to  amuse  the 
spectator  is  usually  absent. 

In  mediaeval  art,  however,  the  beauty  of  line,  the  sense 
of  horror,  and  the  voluptuous  spirit,  are  all  more  or  less 
subservient  to  the  light-hearted  buoyancy  of  a keen  sense 
of  fun.  To  illustrate  this  point,  I wish  to  call  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  to  the  wit  of  the  monastic  scribes 
during  the  Gothic  period.  Who  could  look  at  the  little 
animals  which  are  found  tucked  away  almost  out  of 
sight  in  the  flowery  margins  of  many  illuminated  man- 
uscripts, without  seeing  that  the  artist  himself  must  have 
been  amused  at  their  pranks,  and  intended  others  to  be 
so?  One  can  picture  a gray-hooded  brother,  chuckling 
alone  at  his  own  wit,  carefully  tracing  a jolly  little  gro- 
tesque, and  then  stealing  softly  to  the  alcove  of  some 
congenial  spirit,  and  in  a whisper  inviting  his  friend  to 
come  and  see  the  satire  which  he  has  carefully  intro- 
duced: “A  perfect  portrait  of  the  Bishop,  only  with 
claws  instead  of  legs!  So  very  droll!  And  dear  brother, 
while  you  are  here,  just  look  at  the  expression  of  this 


352  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 

little  rabbit’s  ears,  while  he  listens  to  the  bombastic 
utterance  of  this  monkey  who  wears  a stole!  ” 

Such  a fund  of  playful  humour  is  seldom  found  in  a 
single  book  as  that  embodied  in  the  Tenison  Psalter, 
of  which  only  a few  pages  remain  of  the  work  of  the 
original  artist.  The  book  was  once  the  property  of  Arch- 
bishop  Tenison.  These  few  pages  show  to  the  world  the 
most  perfect  example  of  the  delicacy  and  skill  of  the 


CARICATURE  OF  A BISHOP 


miniaturist.  On  one  page,  a little  archer,  after  having 
pulled  his  bow-string,  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  border, 
gazing  upwards  after  the  arrow,  which  has  been  caught 
in  the  bill  of  a stork  at  the  top  of  the  page.  The  attitude 
of  a little  fiddler  who  is  exhibiting  his  trick  monkeys 
can  hardly  be  surpassed  by  caricaturists  of  any  time. 
A quaint  bit  of  cloister  scandal  is  indicated  in  an  initial 
from  the  Harleian  Manuscript,  in  which  a monk  who 
has  been  entrusted  with  the  cellar  keys  is  seen  availing 
himself  of  the  situation,  eagerly  quaffing  a cup  of  wine 
while  he  stoops  before  a large  cask.  In  a German  manu- 


Illumination  of  Books 


353 


script  I have  seen,  cuddled  away  among  the  foliage, 
in  the  margin,  a couple  of  little  monkeys,  feeding  a baby 
of  their  own  species  with  pap  from  a spoon.  The  baby 
monkey  is  closely  wrapped  in  the  swathing  bands  with 
which  one  is  familiar  as  the  early  trussing  of  European 
children.  Satire  and  wrath  are  curiously  blended  in  a 
German  manuscript  of  the  twelfth  century,  in  which  the 
scribe  introduces  a portrait  of  himself  hurling  a missile 
at  a venturesome  mouse  who  is  eating  the  monk’s 
cheese  — a fine  Camembert!  — under  his  very  nose. 
In  the  book  which  he  is  represented  as  transcribing, 
the  artist  has  traced  the  words  — “ Pessime  mus,  sepius 
me  provocas  ad  iram,  ut  te  Deus  perdat.”  (“  Wicked 
mouse,  too  often  you  provoke  me  to  anger  — may  God 
destroy  thee!  ”) 

In  their  illustrations  the  scribes  often  showed  how 
literal  was  their  interpretation  of  Scriptural  text.  For 
instance,  in  a passage  in  the  book  known  as  the  Utrecht 
Psalter,  there  is  an  illustration  of  the  verse,  “ The  words 
of  the  Lord  are  pure  words;  as  silver  tried  in  the  furnace, 
purified  seven  times.”  A glowing  forge  is  seen,  and  two 
craftsmen  are  working  with  bellows,  pincers,  and  ham- 
mer, to  prove  the  temper  of  some  metal,  which  is  so 
molten  that  a stream  of  it  is  pouring  out  of  the  furnace. 
Another  example  of  this  literal  interpretation,  is  in 
the  Psalter  of  Edwin,  where  two  men  are  engaged  in 
sharpening  a sword  upon  a grindstone,  in  illustration  of 
the  text  about  the  wicked,  “ who  whet  their  tongue 
like  a sword.” 


354  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


There  is  evidence  of  great  religious  zeal  in  the  exhorta- 
tions of  the  leaders  to  those  who  worked  under  them. 
Abbot  John  of  Tottenham  thus  admonished  the  workers 
in  the  Scriptorium  in  1486:  “ I have  diminished  your 
labours  out  of  the  monastery  lest  by  working  badly  you 
should  only  add  to  your  sins,  and  have  enjoined  on  you 
the  manual  labour  of  writing  and  binding  books.  There 
is  in  my  opinion  no  labour  more  becoming  a monk  than 
the  writing  of  ecclesiastical  books.  ...  You  will  recall 
that  the  library  of  this  monastery  . . . had  been 
dissipated,  sold,  or  made  way  with  by  disorderly  monks 
before  us,  so  that  when  I came  here  I found  but  fourteen 
volumes.” 

It  was  often  with  a sense  of  relief  that  a monk  finished 
his  work  upon  a volume,  as  the  final  word,  written  by 
the  scribe  himself,  and  known  as  the  Explicit,  frequently 
shows.  In  an  old  manuscript  in  the  Monastery  of  St. 
Aignan  the  writer  has  thus  expressed  his  emotions: 
“ Look  out  for  your  fingers!  Do  not  put  them  on  my 
writing!  You  do  not  know  what  it  is  to  write!  It  cramps 
your  back,  it  obscures  your  eyes,  it  breaks  your  sides 
and  stomach!”  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  various 
forms  which  these  final  words  of  the  scribes  took;  some- 
times the  Explicit  is  a pathetic  appeal  for  remembrance 
in  the  prayers  of  the  reader,  and  sometimes  it  contains 
a note  of  warning.  In  a manuscript  of  St.  Augustine 
now  at  Oxford,  there  is  written:  “This  book  belongs 
to  St.  Mary’s  of  Robert’s  Bridge;  whoever  shall  steal  it 
or  in  any  way  alienate  it  from  this  house,  or  mutilate 


Illumination  of  Books 


355 


it,  let  him  be  Anathema  Marantha!  ” A later  owner, 
evidently  to  justify  himself,  has  added,  “ I,  John,  Bishop 
of  Exeter,  know  not  where  this  aforesaid  house  is,  nor 
did  I steal  this  book,  but  acquired  it  in  a lawful  way!  ” 

The  Explicit  in  the  Benedictional  of  Ethelwold  is 
touching:  the  writer  asks  “ all  who  gaze  on  this  book 
to  ever  pray  that  after  the  end  of  the  flesh  I may  inherit 
health  in  heaven;  this  is  the  prayer  of  the  scribe,  the 
humble  Godemann.”  A mysterious  Explicit  occurs  at 
the  end  of  an  Irish  manuscript  of  1138,  “ Pray  for  Moel- 
brighte  who  wrote  this  book.  Great  was  the  crime 
when  Cormac  Mac  Carthy  was  slain  by  Tardelvach 
O’Brian.”  Who  shall  say  what  revelation  may  have 
been  embodied  in  these  words?  Was  it  in  the  nature  of 
a confession  or  an  accusation  of  some  hitherto  unknown 
occurrence?  Coming  as  it  does  at  the  close  of  a sacred 
book,  it  was  doubtless  written  for  some  important  reason. 

Among  curious  examples  of  the  Explicit  may  be 
quoted  the  following:  “ It  is  finished.  Let  it  be  finished, 
and  let  the  writer  go  out  for  a drink.”  A French  monk 
adds:  “ Let  a pretty  girl  be  given  to  the  writer  for  his 
pains.”  Ludovico  di  Cherio,  a famous  illuminator  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  has  this  note  at  the  end  of  a book  upon 
which  he  had  long  been  engaged:  “ Completed  on  the 
vigil  of  the  nativity  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  on  an 
empty  stomach.”  (Whether  this  refers  to  an  imposed 
penance  or  fast,  or  whether  Ludovico  considered  that 
the  offering  of  a meek  and  empty  stomach  would  be 
especially  acceptable,  the  reader  may  determine.) 


356  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


There  is  an  amusing  rhymed  Explicit  in  an  early 
fifteenth  century  copy  of  Froissart: 

“ I,  Raoul  Tanquy,  who  never  was  drunk 
(Or  hardly  more  than  judge  or  monk,) 

On  fourth  of  July  finished  this  book, 

Then  to  drink  at  the  Tabouret  myself  took, 

With  Pylon  and  boon  companions  more 
Who  tripe  with  onions  and  garlic  adore.” 

But  if  some  of  the  monks  complained  or  made  sport 
of  their  work,  there  were  others  to  whom  it  was  a divine 
inspiration,  and  whose  affection  for  their  craft  was  al- 
most fanatic,  an  anecdote  being  related  of  one  of  them, 
who,  when  about  to  die,  refused  to  be  parted  from  the 
book  upon  which  he  had  bestowed  much  of  his  life’s 
energy,  and  who  clutched  it  in  his  last  agony  so  that 
even  death  should  not  take  it  from  him.  The  good 
Othlonus  of  Ratisbon  congratulates  himself  upon  his 
own  ability  in  a spirit  of  humility  even  while  he  rejoices 
in  his  great  skill;  he  says:  “ I think  proper  to  add  an 
account  of  the  great  knowledge  and  capacity  for  writing 
which  was  given  me  by  the  Lord  in  my  childhood.  When 
as  yet  a little  child,  I was  sent  to  school  and  quickly 
learned  my  letters,  and  I began  long  before  the  time  of 
learning,  and  without  any  order  from  my  master,  to 
learn  the  art  of  writing.  Undertaking  this  in  a furtive 
and  unusual  manner,  and  without  any  teacher,  I got 
a habit  of  holding  my  pen  wrongly,  nor  were  any  of 
my  teachers  afterwards  able  to  correct  me  on  that  point.” 
This  very  human  touch  comes  down  to  us  through  the 


Illumination  of  Books 


357 


ages  to  prove  the  continuity  of  educational  experience! 
The  accounts  of  his  monastic  labours  put  us  to  the  blush 
when  we  think  of  such  activity.  “ While  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Tegernsee  in  Bavaria  I wrote  many  books.  . . . 
Being  sent  to  Franconia  while  I was  yet  a boy,  I worked 
so  hard  writing  that  before  I had  returned  I had  nearly 
lost  my  eyesight.  After  I became  a monk  at  St.  E ru- 
in erem,  I was  appointed  the  school-master.  The  duties 
of  the  office  so  fully  occupied  my  time  that  I was  able 
to  do  the  transcribing  I was  interested  in  only  by  nights 
and  in  holidays.  ...  I was,  however,  able,  in  addition 
to  writing  the  books  that  I had  myself  composed,  and 
the  copies  which  I gave  away  for  the  edification  of  those 
who  asked  for  them,  to  prepare  nineteen  missals,  three 
books  of  the  Gospels  and  Epistles,  besides  which  I wrote 
four  service  books  for  Matins.  I wrote  in  addition 
several  other  books  for  the  brethren  at  Fulda,  for  the 
monks  at  Hirschfeld,  and  at  Amerbach,  for  the  Abbot 
of  Lorsch,  for  certain  friends  at  Passau,  and  for  other 
friends  in  Bohemia,  for  the  monastery  at  Tegernsee, 
for  the  monastery  at  Preyal,  for  that  at  Obermunster, 
and  for  my  sister’s  son.  Moreover,  I sent  and  gave  at 
different  times  sermons,  proverbs,  and  edifying  writings. 
Afterward  old  age’s  infirmities  of  various  kinds  hindered 
me.”  Surely  Othlonus  was  justified  in  retiring  when  his 
time  came,  and  enjoying  some  respite  from  his  labours! 

Religious  feeling  in  works  of  art  is  an  almost  inde- 
finable thing,  but  one  which  is  felt  in  all  true  emanations 
of  the  conscientious  spirit  of  devotion.  Fra  Angelico 


358  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


had  a special  gift  for  expressing  in  his  artistic  creations 
his  own  spiritual  life;  the  very  qualities  for  which  he 
stood,  his  virtues  and  his  errors,  — purity,  unquestion- 
ing faith  in  the  miraculous,  narrowness  of  creed,  and 
gentle  and  adoring  humility, — all  these  elements  are 
seen  to  completeness  in  his  decorative  pictures.  Perhaps 
this  is  because  he  really  lived  up  to  his  principles.  One  of 
his  favourite  sayings  was  “ He  who  occupies  himself 
with  the  things  of  Christ,  must  ever  dwell  with  Christ.” 
It  is  related  that,  in  the  Monastery  of  Maes  Eyck, 
while  the  illuminators  were  at  work  in  the  evening, 
copying  Holy  Writ,  the  devil,  in  a fit  of  rage,  extinguished 
their  candles;  they,  however,  were  promptly  lighted 
again  by  a Breath  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  good  work 
went  on!  Salvation  was  supposed  to  be  gained  through 
conscientious  writing.  A story  is  told  of  a worldly 
and  frivolous  brother,  who  was  guilty  of  many  sins  and 
follies,  but  who,  nevertheless,  was  an  industrious  scribe. 
When  he  came  to  die,  the  devil  claimed  his  soul.  The 
angels,  however,  brought  before  the  Throne  a great 
book  of  religious  Instructions  which  he  had  illuminated, 
and  for  every  letter  therein,  he  received  pardon  for  one 
sin.  Behold!  When  the  account  was  completed,  there 
proved  to  be  one  letter  over ! the  narrator  adds  naively, 
“ And  it  was  a very  big  book.” 

Perhaps  more  than  any  books  executed  in  the  better 
period,  after  the  decline  had  begun,  were  the  Books  of 
Hours,  containing  the  numerous  daily  devotions  which 
form  part  of  the  ritual  of  the  Roman  Church.  Every 


aiVAa  THAH3HD  V3  MOITAWIMUJJM* 
A3ASHA3  .T2  ;8?M  .230UH3  30  1» 


358  Arts  and.  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


had  a special  gift  for  expressing  in  his  artistic  creations 
his  own  spiritual  life;  the  very  qualities  for  which  he 
stood,  his  virtues  and  his  errors,  — purity,  unquestion- 
ing faith  in  the  miraculous,  narrowness  of  creed,  and 
gentle  and  adoring  humility, — all  these  elements  are 
seen  to  completeness  in  his  decorative  pictures.  Perhaps 
this  is  because  he  really  lived  up  to  his  principles.  One  of 
his  favourite  sayings  was  “ He  who  occupies  himself 
with  the  things  of  Christ,  must  ever  dwell  with  Christ.” 

It  is  related  that,  in  the  Monastery  of  Maes  Eyck, 
while  the  illuminators  were  at  work  in  the  evening, 
copying  Holy  Writ,  the  devil,  in  a fit  of  rage,  extinguished 
their  candles;  they,  however,  were  promptly  lighted 
aga?;:  by  work 

wen  i gjf  through 

conscientious  waiting.  A story  is  told  of  a worldly 
and  frivolous  brother,  who  was  guilty  of  many  sins  and 
follies,  but  who,  nevertheless,  was  an  industrious  scribe. 
When  he  came  to  die,  the  devil  claimed  his  soul.  The 
angels,  however,  brought  before  the  Throne  a great 
book  of  religious  Instructions  which  he  had  illuminated, 
and  for  every  letter  therein,  he  received  pardon  for  one 
w Behold!  When  - w or  count.  was  completed,  there 
proved  to  be  one  letter  ow* f v-;,  rowoioo  adds  naively, 
And  it  was  a very  big  book.” 

Pei  haps  more  than  any  books  executed  in  the  better 
period  if  ? the  decline  had  begun,  were  the  Books  of 
Hours,  vo.orung  the  numerous  daily  devotions  which 
form  part  of  dhe  ritual  of  the  Roman  Church.  Every 


Illumination  of  Books 


359 


well  appointed  lady  was  supposed  to  own  a copy,  and 
there  is  a little  verse  by  Eustache  Deschamps,  a poet 
of  the  time  of  Charles  V.,  in  which  a woman  is  supposed 
to  be  romancing,  about  the  various  treasures  she  would 
like  to  possess.  She  says: 

“ Hours  of  Our  Lady  should  be  mine, 

Fitting  for  a noble  dame, 

Of  lofty  lineage  and  name; 

Wrought  most  cunningly  and  quaint, 

In  gold  and  richest  azure  paint. 

Rare  covering  of  cloth  of  gold 
Full  daintily  it  shall  enfold, 

Or,  open  to  the  view  exposed, 

Two  golden  clasps  to  keep  it  closed.” 

John  Skelton  the  poet  did  honour  to  the  illuminated 
tomes  of  his  day,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  aesthetic 
deterioration  had  begun. 

“ With  that  of  the  boke  lozende  were  the  clasps 
The  margin  was  illumined  all  with  golden  railes, 

And  bice  empictured,  with  grasshoppers  and  waspes 
With  butterflies  and  fresh  peacock’s  tailes: 

Englosed  with  . . . pictures  well  touched  and  quickly, 

It  wold  have  made  a man  hole  that  had  be  right  sickly!  ” 

But  here  we  have  an  indication  of  that  realism  which 
rung  the  death  knell  of  the  art.  The  grasshoppers  on  a 
golden  ground,  and  the  introduction  of  carefully  painted 
insect  and  floral  life,  led  to  all  sorts  of  extravagances 
of  taste. 

But  before  this  decadence,  there  was  a very  interesting 
period  of  transition,  which  may  be  studied  to  special 


360  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


advantage  in  Italy,  and  is  seen  chiefly  in  the  illumina- 
tions of  the  great  choral  books  which  were  used  in  the 
choirs  of  churches.  One  book  served  for  all  the  singers 
in  those  days,  and  it  was  placed  upon  an  open  lectern 
in  the  middle  of  the  choir,  so  that  all  the  singers  could 
see  it:  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  lettering 
had  to  be  generous,  and  the  page  very  large  for  this 
purpose.  The  decoration  of  these  books  took  on  the 
characteristics  of  breadth  in  keeping  with  their  dimen- 
sions, and  of  large  masses  of  ornament  rather  than  deli- 
cate meander.  The  style  of  the  Italian  choral  books 
is  an  art  in  itself. 

The  Books  of  Hours  and  Missals  developed  during 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  into  positive  art 
galleries,  whole  pages  being  occupied  by  paintings,  the 
vellum  being  entirely  hidden  by  the  decoration.  The 
art  of  illumination  declined  as  the  art  of  miniature  paint- 
ing progressed.  The  fact  that  the  artist  was  decorating 
a page  in  a book  was  lost  sight  of  in  his  ambition  to  paint 
a series  of  small  pictures.  The  glint  of  burnished  gold  on 
the  soft  surface  of  the  vellum  was  no  longer  considered 
elegant,  and  these  more  elaborate  pictures  often  left 
not  even  a margin,  so  that  the  pictures  might  as  well 
have  been  executed  on  paper  and  canvas  and  framed 
separately,  for  they  do  not  suggest  ornaments  in  a book 
after  this  change  had  taken  place.  Lettering  is  hardly 
introduced  at  all  on  the  same  page  with  the  illustration, 
or,  when  it  is,  is  placed  in  a little  tablet  which  is  simply 
part  of  the  general  scheme, 


arm  miccim 


CHORAL  BOOK,  SIENA 


Illumination  of  Books 


361 


Among  the  books  in  this  later  period  I will  refer 
specifically  to  two  only,  the  Hours  of  Ann  of  Brittany, 
and  the  Grimani  Breviary.  The  Hours  of  Ann  of  Brit- 
tany, illuminated  by  a famous  French  artist  of  the  time 
of  Louis  XII.,  is  reproduced  in  facsimile  by  Curmer,  and 
is  therefore  available  for  consultation  in  most  large 
libraries.  It  will  repay  any  one  who  is  interested  in 
miniature  art  to  examine  this  book,  for  the  work  is  so 
excellent  that  it  is  almost  like  turning  the  leaves  of  the 
original.  The  Grimani  Breviary,  which  was  illuminated 
by  Flemish  artists  of  renown,  was  the  property  of 
Cardinal  Grimani,  and  is  now  one  of  the  treasures  of 
the  Library  of  St.  Marc  in  Venice.  It  is  impossible  in  a 
short  space  to  comment  to  any  adequate  extent  upon  the 
work  of  such  eminent  artists  as  Jean  Foucquet,  Don 
Giulio  Clovio,  Sano  di  Pietro,  and  Liberale  da  Verona; 
they  were  technically  at  the  head  of  their  art,  and  yet, 
so  far  as  taste  in  book  decoration  is  to  be  considered,  their 
work  would  be  more  satisfactory  as  framed  miniatures 
than  as  marginal  or  paginal  ornament. 

Stippling  was  brought  to  its  ultimate  perfection  by 
Don  Giulio  Clovio,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  first 
practised  by  Antonio  de  Holanda. 

One  of  Jehan  Foucquet’s  assistants  was  Jehan  Bour- 
dichon.  There  is  an  interesting  memorandum  extant, 
relating  to  a piece  of  illumination  which  Bourdichon 
had  accomplished.  “ To  the  said  B.  for  having  had 
written  a book  in  parchment  named  the  Papalist,  the 
same  illuminated  in  gold  and  azure  and  made  in  the 


362  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


same  nine  rich  Histories,  and  for  getting  it  bound  and 
covered,  thirty  crowns  in  gold.” 

At  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  there  was  a rage 
for  “ tiny  books,”  miniature  copies  of  famous  works. 
M.  Wiirtz  possessed  a copy  of  the  Sonnets  of  Petrarch, 
written  in  italics,  in  brown  ink,  of  which  the  length  was 
one  inch,  and  the  breadth  five-eighths  of  an  inch,  show- 
ing fifty  lines  on  a page.  The  text  is  only  visible  through 
a glass.  It  is  in  Italian  taste,  with  several  miniatures, 
and  is  bound  in  gold  filigree. 

The  value  of  illuminated  books  is  enormous.  An 
Elector  of  Bavaria  once  offered  a town  for  a single  book; 
but  the  monks  had  sufficient  worldly  wisdom  to  know 
that  he  could  easily  take  the  town  again,  and  so  declined 
the  exchange! 

. With  the  introduction  of  printing,  the  art  of  illumina- 
tion was  doomed.  The  personal  message  from  the  scribe 
to  the  reader  was  merged  in  the  more  comprehensive 
message  of  the  press  to  the  public.  It  was  no  longer 
necessary  to  spend  a year  on  a work  that  could  be 
accomplished  in  a day;  so  the  artists  found  themselves 
reduced  to  painting  initial  letters  in  printed  books, 
sometimes  on  vellum,  but  more  often  on  paper.  This  art 
still  flourishes  in  many  localities;  but  it  is  no  more 
illumination,  though  it  is  often  so  designated,  than 
photography  is  portrait  painting.  Both  are  useful  in 
their  departments  and  for  their  several  purposes,  but 
it  is  incorrect  to  confound  them. 

Once,  while  examining  an  old  choral  book,  I was  par- 


DETAIL  FROM  AN  ITALIAN  CHORAL 


BOOK 


Illumination  of  Books 


363 


ticularly  struck  with  the  matchless  personal  element 
which  exists  in  a book  which  is  made,  as  this  was,  by 
the  hand,  from  the  first  stroke  to  the  last.  The  first 
page  showed  a bold  lettering,  the  sweep  of  the  pen 
being  firm  and  free.  Animal  vigour  was  demonstrated 
in  the  steady  hand  and  the  clear  eye.  The  illuminations 
were  daintily  painted,  and  the  sure  touch  of  the  little 
white  line  used  to  accentuate  the  colours,  was  notice- 
able. After  several  pages,  the  letters  became  less  true 
and  firm.  The  lines  had  a tendency  to  slant  to  the 
right;  a weakness  could  be  detected  in  the  formerly 
strong  man.  Finally  the  writing  grew  positively  shaky. 
The  skill  was  lost. 

Suddenly,  on  another  page,  came  a change.  A new 
hand  had  taken  up  the  work  — that  of  a novice.  He 
had  not  the  skill  of  the  previous  worker  in  his  best  days, 
but  the  indecision  of  his  lines  was  that  of  inexperience, 
not  of  failing  ability.  Gradually  he  improved.  His 
colours  were  clearer  and  ground  more  smoothly;  his 
gold  showed  a more  glassy  surface.  The  book  ended 
as  it  had  begun,  a virile  work  of  art;  but  in  the  course 
of  its  making,  one  man  had  grown  old,  lost  his  skill, 
and  died,  and  another  had  started  in  his  immaturity, 
gained  his  education,  and  devoted  his  best  years  to  this 
book. 

The  printing  press  stands  for  all  that  is  progressive 
and  desirable;  modern  life  and  thought  hang  upon  this 
discovery.  But  in  this  glorious  new  birth  there  was 
sacrificed  a certain  indescribable  charm  which  can  never 


364  Arts  and  Crafts  in  the  Middle  Ages 


be  felt  now  except  by  a book  lover  as  he  turns  the 
leaves  of  an  ancient  illuminated  book.  To  him  it  is 
given  to  understand  that  pathetic  appeal  across  the 
centuries. 


THE  END. 


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INDEX 


Aachen,  16 

Abbeville,  265 

Abbo,  57 

Absalom,  299 

Acherius,  J..  335 

Adam,  28 

Adam,  Abbot,  21 

Adaminus,  222 

Adelard,  229 

Aelfled,  199 

Aelst,  172 

Agatho,  281 

Agnelli,  Fra,  226 

Agnese,  St.,  14,  316 

Agnolo,  B.,  303 

Ahab,  276 

Aignan,  St.,  354 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  98,  287 

Albans,  St.,  114,  186,  207,  250 

Alberti,  L.,  131 

Alcuin,  14,  278,  332 

Aldobrandini,  131 

Alfred,  King,  4,  64,  67,  94,  199 

Alford,  Lady,  188,  303 

Alicante,  167 

Almeria,  183 

Aloise,  20 

Alwin,  Bp.,  252 

Alwyn,  H.  F.,  25 

Amasia,  Bp.  of,  191 

America,  25 

Amiens,  65,  144,  230,  233,  236, 
238,  240,  244,  265 
Anastatius,  201,  281 
“ Anatomy  of  Abuses/51  26 
Ancona,  224 
“ Ancren  Riwle,”  75 
Angers,  164,  208 
Anglo-Saxons,  49,  92,  95,  100, 


111,  159,  184,  294,  343 
Anne  cf  Bohemia,  65,  135 
Anne  of  Brittany,  174,  211,  361 
Anne  of  Cleves,  206 
AnquetU,  230 
Antelami,  221 
Anthemius,  316 
Anthony,  St.,  254 
Antwerp,  116 
Apollinaire,  St.,  316 
Apollonius,  319 
Apulia,  182 
Arabia,  5,  14,  147 
Arles,  18,  192,  229 
Arnant,  A.,  292 
Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  227 
Armour,  121-132 
Arphe,  H.  d’  and  J.  d’,  24,  25 
Arras,  20,  165,  166,  167,  171 
Arrigo  (see  Peselli) 

Arthur,  Prince,  205 
Artois,  166 
Asser,  4 

Asterius,  St.,  192 
Atlas,  9 
Athelmay,  4 
August  the  Pious,  245 
Augustine,  St.,  279,  354 
Aurelian,  180 
Auquilinus,  230 
Austin,  W.,  129 
Auxene,  162 
Aventin,  St.,  231 
A vernier,  A.,  265 
Avignon,  M.  de,  33 

“ Babee’s  Book,”  39 
Bakes,  J.,  171 
Balbastro,  130 


369 


370 


Index 


Baldini,  B.,  34 
Baldovinetto,  322 
B allin,  C.,  35 
Bamberg,  258 
Baptist,  John,  65 
Barbarossa,  16 
Barcheston,  171 
Bargello,  281 
Barnwell,  330 

Bartholomew  Anglicus,  4,  81, 
83,  110,  149 
Basilewski,  291 
Basle,  23 
Basse-taille,  103 
Bataille,  166 

Bavaria,  165,  266,  295,  362 
Bayeux  Tapestry,  154-159 
Bazinge,  A.  de,  207 
Beauchamp,  R.,  144 
Becket,  T.  h,  28,  46,  54,  61 
Bede,  110,  145 
Begue,  J.  de,  338 
Bells,  145 

Benedict,  St.,  4,  329 
Benedictional  of  Ethelwold,  355 
Benet,  J.,  250 
Bergamo,  308 
Bernard,  M.,  167 
Bernard,  St.,  21,  22,  270,  287 
Bernward,  Bp.,  16-20,  136,  140, 
229,  317 
Berquem,  L.,  74 
Bess  of  Hardwick,  211 
Bethancourt,  J.  de,  33 
Beverly,  257,  274 
Bezaleel,  1,  25 
Bezold,  H.  van,  268 
Bianchini,  324 
Billiard  Balls,  295 
Birch,  Wo  de  G.,  349 
Biscornette,  113 
Black  Prince,  135 
“ Blandiver,  Jack,”  152 
Bloet,  Bp.,  246 
Blois,  174 
Boabdil,  127 
Boileau,  E.,  217 
Boleyn,  A.,  78 
Bologna,  224,  308 
Bolognese,  M.  S.,  337 


Boningegna,  G.,  98 
Boston  Art  Museum,  342 
Bosworth,  66 
Botticelli,  190 
Boudichon,  J.,  361 
Boulin,  A.,  265 
Boutellier,  J.  le,  237 
Bradshaw,  170 
Brandenburgh,  295 
Bridget,  St.,  53,  346 
Briolottus,  222 
Brithnoth,  160 
British  Museum,  292,  345 
Bronze,  132-149 
Brooches,  50-56 
Browning,  R.,  258 
Brunelleschi,  305 
Brussels,  172 
Brussels,  M.  S.,  337 
Burgundy,  194 

Byzantine  style,  13,  22,  24,  49, 
63,  84,  87,  92,  97,  103,  183, 
191,  199,  220,  224,  340 
“ Byzantine  Guide,”  342 


Cadwollo,  134 
Caffi,  M.,  307 
Cambio,  A.  del,  301 
Cambridge,  37,  364 
Camerino,  J.,  321 
Cameos,  85-90 
Cano,  A.,  268 

Canterbury,  54,  135,  176,  243 
Canute  (see  Knut) 

Canozio,  305 
Caradosso,  8 
Caramania,  168 
Carazan,  5 
Carlencas,  218 
Carovage,  151 
Carpentras,  Bp,  of,  37 
Carrara,  221 
Carter,  J.,  106,  251,  290 
Casati,  90 
Cassiodorus,  327 
Castel,  G.  van,  268 
Castiglione,  Count,  308 
Cecilia,  St.,  186 
Celestine  III.,  Pope,  18 


Index 


371 


Cellini,  Benvenuto,  xii,  7-13, 
43,  56,  68-71,  91,  96,  105,  127, 
132,  304 

Celtic  style,  50-54,  92,  343 
Centula,  317 
Chained  Books,  330 
Chalices,  29 
Champleve,  94,  103 
Charlemagne,  14,  15,  23,  62,  98, 
124,  146,  181,  203,  224,  294, 
328,  332,  338 
Charles  I.,  212 

Charles  V.,  40,  70,  165,  209,  265, 
295,  359 

Charles  the  Bold,  15 
Chartres,  107,  145,  219,  229,  231, 
234,  237,  238,  242,  312 
Chaucer,  169,  181,  193 
Chelles,  J.  de,  240 
Cherio,  L.  de,  355 
Chester,  170,  273 
Chichester,  242 
Chilperic,  38 
Chinchintalas,  187 
Christin  of  Margate,  207 
Cid,  The,  128 
Claudian,  278 
Clement  le  Brodeur,  207 
Clement,  Pope,  9,  56,  89 
Clemente,  St.,  321 
Clermont,  314 
Clocks,  150 
Clothaire  II.,  157 
Clovio,  G.,  361 
Clovis  II.,  62 
Cluny,  14 
Cockayne,  W.,  44 
Coinsi,  Prior,  270 
Colaccio,  M,,  305 
Cola  di  Rienzi,  204 
Coldingham,  249 
Cologne,  98,  115,  145 
Columba,  St.,  220,  327,  344 
Columbkille,  52 

Constantine,  13,  313,  31*6,  340 
Constantinople,  57,  84,  86,  97, 
136,  181,  225,  316,  317,  318, 
340 

Constanza,  Sta.,  314 
Coquille,  G.  de,  32 


Cordova,  25 

Coro,  D.  del,  299 

Cosmati  Mosaic,  310 

Coula,  53 

Courtray,  152 

Coventry,  201 

Cozette,  177 

Cracow,  266 

Crete,  276 

Crest,  H.,  33 

Crivelli,  C.,  183 

Croisetes,  J.  de,  166 

Cromwell,  O.,  29 

Crown  Jewels,  66 

Croyland,  147,  164,  192,  200 

Crumdale,  R.,  250 

Cunegonde,  207 

Cunegunda,  Queen,  2,  24 

Cups,  44 

Curfew,  147 

Curmer,  361 

Cuserius,  315 

Cuthbert,  St.,  53,  145,  199,  345 
Cynewulf,  149 
Cyzicus,  L.  de,  279,  341 

Dagobert,  62,  162 
Damascening,  126 
Damiane,  Fra,  308 
Davenport,  287 
Davenport,  C.,  86 
Davi,  J.,  236 
Day,  Lewis,  183 
Decker,  H.,  259 
Delhi.  57 
Delphyn,  N.,  255 
Delobel,  196 

Denis,  St.,  20,  22,  58,  83,  162, 
230,  232 

Deschamps,  E.,  359 
Diamonds,  71-74 
Diane  of  de  Poictiers,  107 
Didier,  Abbe,  318 
Didron,  18,  140 
Dijon,  152,  194,  229 
Dipoenus,  276 
Dioscorides,  341 
Domenico  of  the  Cameos,  88 
Donatello,  xiii,  227 
Donne,  Dr.,  79 


372 


Index 


Dourdan,  166 
Drawswerd,  255 
Dresden,  85 
Dublin,  27,  344 
Ducarel,  159 

Dunstan,  St.,  75,  110,  182 
Diirer,  A.,  132,  258,  266,  268 
Durham,  53,  148,  172,  197,  250, 
252,  288,  318 
“ Durham  Book,”  344 
Durosne,  33 
Duval,  J.,  173 

Ebony,  307 
Ecclesiasticus,  81 
Edinburgh,  130 
Edgitha,  193 
Edith,  Queen,  159 
Edrisi,  167 

Edward,  goldsmith,  28,  36 
Edward  I.,  75 
Edward  II.,  168,  199 
Edward  III..  36,  66,  193 
Edward  IV.,  37,  117 
Edward  the  Confessor,  26,  28, 
75,  156,  193,  224,  251 
Egebric,  147 
Eginhard,  282 
Egyptians,  1 

Eleanor,  Queen,  117,  135,  144, 
165,  249 
Elfen,  309 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  26,  129,  211 
Eloi,  St.,  22,  57-62,  111 
Ely,  159,  195,  200,  249 
Embroideries,  179-212 
Emesa,  65 

Emma,  Queen,  200,  251 

Enamels,  91-108 

England,  2,  4,  23,  135,  164,  214 

Eraclius,  336 

Essex,  William  of,  107 

Etheldreda,  St.,  249 

Explicit,  354 

Exodus,  1 

Ezekiel,  276 

Fairill,  53 

Falkland,  Viscount,  211 
Farcy,  L.,  189,  203 


Ferdinand  I.,  302 
Ferdinand  II.,  302. 

Fereol,  St.,  328 
Ferucci,  F.,  302 
Filigree,  12 
Finger-rings,  74-78 
Finiguerra,  M.,  34,  101 
Flagons,  37 
Flanders,  165 

Florence,  xii,  26,  34,  88,  115, 
136,  147  176,  224,  264,  298, 
301,  303,  319,  322 
Florence,  Jean  of,  165 
Florent,  St.,  163 
Fontaine,  E.  la,  23 
Foucquet,  J.,  361 
Fowke,  F.  R.,  155 
Fra  Angelico,  357 
France,  2,  3,  5,  23,  162,  164,  214- 
216,  257,  262,  291,  325 
Francia,  34,  183 

Francis  I.,  11,  105,  107,  133,  152, 
177 

Fremlingham,  R.  de,  250 
Froissart,  131,  152,  356 
Fuller,  189,  201 

Gaddi,  G.  and  A.,  319-320,  322 
Gaegart,  114 
Gale,  P.,  207 

Gall,  St.,  124,  145,  263,  285 
Galla  Placida,  315 
“ Gammer  Gurton’s  Needle,” 
188 

Gandesheim,  19 
Garlande,  J.  de,  62 
Gamier,  230 
Gaunt,  J.  of,  35,  55 
Gautier,  H.,  207 
Gendulphus,  St.,  288 
Genesis,  160 
Genevieve,  St.,  3,  239 
Genoa,  12,  180 
Gerbert,  150 

Germany,  5,  16,  17,  114,  130, 
139,  141,  185,  198,  214,  257, 
262,  291 
George  II.,  186 
George  IV.,  75 
Gerona,  160 


Index 


373 


Ghent,  130 

Ghiberti,  xii,  34,  71,  136,  227 
Ghirlandajo,  33,  322 
Giacomo,  Maestro,  306 
Gifford,  G..  29 
Gilles,  St.,  '229 
Giralda,  135 

Giraldus,  Cambriensis,  335 
Girard  d’Orleans,  265 
Giotto,  264,  322 

“ Giovanni  of  the  Camelians,” 
88 

Giudetto,  Maestro,  296 
Glastonbury,  110,  152,  220,  331 
Gloucester,  327,  331 
Gloucester,  John  of,  248 
Gobelins  Tapestry,  160,  164, 
176 

Godemann,  355 
Gold  Leaf,  335 
Gontran,  229 
Gothic  style,  24,  29 
Gouda,  299 
Granada,  183 
Gregory,  St.,  221,  277 
Gresham,  Sir  T.,  25 
Gres,  H.  de,  292 
Grimani  Breviary,  361 
Grosso,  N.,  116 

Grotesques,  235-243,  273,  349, 
353 

Grove,  D.  van,  268 
Guerrazzar,  Treasure  of,  63 
Guillaume,  Abbot,  229 
Gutierez,  167 

Haag,  J.,  240 
Hall  Mark,  3 
Hankford,  Sir  W,,  36 
Hampton  Court,  171 
Hannequin,  32 
Harleian  MS.,  352 
Harrison,  193 
Harold,  157,  158 
Hasquin,  J.  de,  33 
Hatfield,  171 
Hayes,  S.  L.,  156 
Headlam,  C.,  268 
Hebrides,  196 
Hebrews,  1 


Heliot,  292 

Hennequin  de  Liege,  240 
Henry  I.,  23,  155 
Henry  II.,  83,  107,  197 
Henry  III.,  27,  28,  36,  38,  86, 
117,  135,  144,  207,  248,  287, 
311 

Henry  V.,  252 
Henry  VI.,  185 

Henry  VII.,  102,  181,  206,  253, 
254,  257,  268 

Henry  VIII.,  131,  175,  195,  209, 
254 

Henry  the  Pious,  23 
Herlin.  F.,  266 
Herman,  74 
Herodias,  65 
Hezilo,  20 

Hildesheim,  xii,  16-20,  116, 

136,  139,  140,  258,  285,  286, 
309,  317 

Holanda,  A.  de,  361 
Holderness,  273 
Honorius,  Pope,  316 
Hudd,  A.,  255 
Huberd,  R.,  251 
Hugh,  St.,  246 
Hughes,  Abbot,  229 
Husee,  37-78 
Hust,  A.,  265 

II  Lasca,  305 
Illumination,  326-364 
Imber,  L.,  255 
Inlay,  296-309 
Innocent  IV.,  200 
Iona,  220 
Ireland,  342-345 
Iron,  109-121 
Isaiah,  1 
Isidore,  316 
Isle  of  Man,  77 
Islip,  Abbot,  102,  275 
Italy,  5,  21,  92,  141 
Ivan  III.,  283 
Ivory  carving,  275-295 
“ Ivy  Pattern,”  347 

Jackson,  H.,  307 
Jacob  of  Breslau,  328 


374 


Index 


Jacobus,  Fra,  319 
James,  315 
James  I.,  56,  176 
Jeanne,  Queen,  173 
Jeanne  of  Navarre,  68 
John,  King,  66,  105,  207 
John  XII.,  Ill 
John  IV.,  316 
Johnson,  R.,  117 
Joinville,  Sirede,  194 
Jones,  Sir  E.  B.,  203 
Jouy,  B.  de,  314 
Justinian,  220,  221,  315 

Katherine,  Queen,  252 
Katherine  of  Aragon,  209 
Keepe,  H.,  241 
Kells,  Book  of,  49,  344 
Kent,  Fair  Maid  of,  196 
Keys,  119 

Kildare,  Gospels  of,  345 
Kirton,  Ed.,  241 
“ Kleine  Heldenbuch,”  189 
Knight,  210 
Knut,  King,  200,  252 
Kohinoor,  71 

Kraft,  A.,  141,  213,  258,  259, 
261,  266 
Krems,  115 

Laach,  262 
Labenwolf,  143 
Labarte,  302 
Laborde,  74 
Labraellier,  J.,  295 
Lacordaire,  160 
Lagrange,  168 
Lambspring,  B.,  129 
Lamoury,  S.,  166 
Lateran,  The,  205,  316,  321 
Laura,  193 
Lawrence,  St.,  315 
Lead,  149 
Lebrija,  269 
Leighton,  T.  de,  117 
Leland,  206 
Leo  III.,  203 
Leo  X.,  172 
Leon,  25 
Leopardi,  302 


“ Les  Maitres  Mosaltes,”  323 
Lethaby,  W.  R.,  252,  311 
Lewis,  293 
Lewis,  H.,  117 
Liberale  da  Verona,  361 
“ Liber  Eliensis,”  200 
Lille,  166 

Limoges,  24-57,  103,  107,  144 
Lincoln,  244,  246,  274 
Lincoln  Imp,  247 
Lindisfarne,  53,  345 
Limousin,  E.  and  L.,  107 
Lisle,  Lord,  35,  55 
Little  Gidding,  212- 
Locks,  120 

Lombards,  The,  18,  63,  220,  277 
London,  25,  26,  44,  182,  185, 
206,  248,  288 
Lothaire,  38 
Louis  VI.,  21 
Louis  VII.,  21 
Louis  XII.,  174,  361 
Louis  XIV.,  197 
Louis,  Prince,  20 
Louis,  St.,  22,  194,  232,  240,  253 
Louvre,  The,  270,  292 
Liibke,  xi 
Lucca,  221,  296 
Luca  della  Robbia,  213 
Ludlow,  273 
Luini,  B.,  307 
Luna,  de,  306 

MacDurnam,  344 
“ Mad  Meg,”  130 
Madrid,  177-270 
Maes  Eyck,  358 
Magaster,  278 
Maiano,  B.  de,  304 
Maitland,  14 
Maitani,  L.,  227 
Malaga,  269 

Malmsbury,  W.  of,  65,  75,  220 
Malvezzi,  M.,  308 
Manne,  P.,  33 
Mantegna,  101 
Mantreux,  J.  de,  32 
Manuello,  302 
Mapilton,  Master,  252 
“ Mappae  Claviculae,”  276 


Index 


375 


Marcel,  St.,  238 

Marcellus,  65 

Marche,  L.  de  la,  341 

Maretta,  G.,  8 

Mariana,  Queen,  270 

Mark's,  St.,  318,  323,  361 

Marten,  66 

Martin,  St.,  17,  87 

Martyr,  Bp.,  240 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  210 

Maskell,  A.  and  W.,  32,  186,  294 

Massari,  A.,  306 

Matilda,  Queen,  155 

Matsys,  Q.,  118,  141 

Matteo  da  Siena,  300 

Maximian,  282 

Medici,  The,  85,  176,  211,  254, 
301 

Memlinc,  166 
Mexicans,  18 
Michael,  St.,  18,  19 
Michelangelo,  9,  90,  116,  254, 
303 

Milan,  281,  307 
Mildmay,  H.,  67 
Minella,  P.  de,  299 
Miniato,  San,  298 
Miserere  Stalls,  271-275 
“ Mons  Meg,”  130 
Monte  Cassino,  318 
Montereau,  J.  de,  240 
Montfort,  S.  de,  63 
Montarsy,  P.  de,  35 
Monza,  23,  63,  221 
Monzon,  146 
Moore,  Charles,  xi,  234 
Moorish  style,  24 
Moreau,  J.,  241 
Morel,  B.,  135 
Mortlake,  178 
Morris,  Wm.,  v,  x,  248 
Moryson,  F.,  26 
Mt.  Athos,  341 
Moser,  L.,  266 
Mosaic,  309-327 

Nantes,  314 
Nassaro,  M.  dal,  88 
Naumberg,  259 
Navagiero,  183 


Nevers,  Count  of,  194 
Nicolas,  J.,  33 
Niello,  49,  99-102 
Nomenticum,  166 
Norfolk,  31 
Norman  style,  29 
Norton,  C.  E.,  219,  226 
Norwich,  45,  196,  331 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  218,  234, 
238,  240 
Noyon,  58,  60 

Nuremberg,  141,  152,  258,  259, 
266,  292,  309 

Oath  Book  of  the  Saxon  Kings, 
346 

Odericus,  311 
Odo,  goldsmith,  14,  27 
Odo,  Abbot,  115 
Olivetans,  307-308 
Orcagna,  34,  140,  183,  227 
Orebsc,  S.  M.,  24 
Orghet,  J.,  166 
Oriental,  24,  84 
Orleans,  33 
Orso  Magister,  222 
Orviedo,  278 

Orvieto,  33,  227,  244,  302,  310 

Osmont,  204 

Othlonus,  356 

Otho,  230,  286 

Otto  III.,  Emperor,  16 

Oudenardes,  169 

Ouen,  St.,  58 

Oxford,  168,  210,  248,  255,  354 

Pacheco,  25 
Padua,  305 
Pala  d’Oro,  23,  97,  98 
Palermo,  311 
“ Pancake  Man,”  245 
Paris,  2,  17,  20-23,  26,  37,  52,  69, 
86, 113, 149,  166, 186,  200,  218, 
229,  234,  238,  239,  240,  339 
Paris,  Matthew,  27,  180,  207 
Parma,  221 
Patras,  L.,  139 

Patrick,  St.,  2,  49,  52,  145,  238 
Paul  the  Deacon,  221 
Paulus,  315 


376 


Index 


Pausanias,  121 
Pavia,  221 
Pembroke,  Earl,  67 
Penne,  208 
Perseus,  134 
Persia,  55 
Perugia,  224,  298 
Peselli,  322 
Peter  Albericus,  224 
Peter  Amabilis,  224 
Peter  the  Great,  295 
Peter  de  St.  Andeman,  335 
Peter  Orfever,  224 
Peter  of  Rome,  310 
Peter  of  Spain,  241 
Petrarch,  192,  362 
Philip  IV.,  167 
Philip  the  Bold,  165 
Philip  the  Good,  165 
Philippa,  Queen,  194 
Philostratus,  91,  103 
Philoxenus,  277 
Picardie,  317 
Pickering,  W.,  129 
Pietra  Dura,  301 
Piggigny,  J.  de,  32 
Pinturicchio,  300 
Pirckheimer,  W.,  132 
Pisa,  221,  225,  298 
Pisani,  The,  71,  216,  221,  225, 
234,  244 
Pistoja,  298 

Pitti  Palace,  101,  177,  301,  302 
Pius  II.,  67 
Pliny,  2,  110,  143 
Poitiers,  162,  163 
Pollajuolo,  xiii,  34,  195 
Polo,  Marco,  5,  55,  71,  184,  187, 
278 

Pordenone,  323 
Portland  Vase,  87 
Poucet,  J.  de  and  B.,  241 
Poullignv,  G.  de,  207 
Poussin,  N.,  33 
Precious  Stones,  77-83 
Prior  and  Gardner,  244 
Probus,  277 

“ Properties  of  Things,”  4 
Psalter  of  Edwin,  353 
Ptolemies,  The,  83 


Pudenziana,  St.,  314 
Pugin,  120,  153 

Quentin,  St.,  60 
“ Queen  Mary’s  Psalter,”  347 

Rabanus,  278 
Rabotin,  L.,  33 
Raffaelo  da  Brescia,  308 
Ralph,  Brother,  250 
Ramsay,  W.,  250 
Raphael,  166,  172,  323 
Rausart,  J.  de,  166 
Ravenna,  216,  224,  282,  283, 
312,  314,  315 
Redgrave,  R.,  xi,  47 
Ree,  J.  P.,  259 

Reformation,  The,  29,  31,  209 
Reggio,  305 

Renaissance,  32,  88,  117,  135, 
141,  164,  192,  205,  227,  239, 
268,  271,  362 

Rene  of  Anjou,  33,  164,  173,  208, 
241 

R,enoy,  J.,  237 
Reynolds,  Sir  J.,  139 
Rheims,  150,  162,  229,  238,  239, 
300 

Richard  II.,  37,  135 
Richard  III.,  66 
Ripon,  273 

Robert,  King,  150,  229 
Rock,  Dr.,  155,  183,  191,  197, 
210 

Rome,  17,  19,  24,  136,  187,  264, 
278,  283,  310,  316,  321,  322 
Romanesque  style,  18,  29,  219, 
220,  258 

Romulus  and  Remus,  299 
Rosebeque,  131,  167 
Rossi,  314 
Rothenburg,  266 
Rouen,  60,  236,  265 
Roze,  Abbe,  236 
Ruskin,  J.,  v,  144,  221,  222,  226, 
227,  235,  265,  298 

Salinas,  130 
Salisbury,  243 
Salisbury,  Earl,  35 


Index 


377 


Salt-cellars,  43 
Salutati,  B.,  195 
Sand,  G.,  323 
Sandwich,  30 
Sansovino,  xii 
Sano  di  Pietro,  361 
Saumur,  162,  241 
Sauval,  114 
Savonarola,  195 
Schulein,  H.,  266 
Scillis,  276 
Scholastico,  A.,  295 
Schutz,  C.,  185 
Scott,  W.,  51 
Sculpture,  213 
Selsea,  242 
Senlis,  H.  de,  292 
Seville,  24,  25,  128,  132,  209 
Sewald,  165 
Shakespeare,  77 
Shoreditch,  J.  of,  168 
Shrewsbury,  211 
Siena,  225,  298-300,  302 
Silk,  179 
Siries,  L.,  302 
Sithiu,  339 
Skelton,  J.,  359 
Smyrna,  168 
Soignoles,  Jo  de,  240 
Solignac,  58 
Sophia,  Sta.,  316 
South  Kensington  Museum,  19, 
170,  177,  197,  198,  303,  226 
Spain,  24,  102,  110,  117,  120, 
127-8,  130,  211,  268,  278,  294, 
306 

Spoons,  39 

“ Squire  of  Low  Degree,’*  197 
Staley,  E.,  134 
Statius,  315 
Stauracius,  136 
Stengel,  H.,  309 
Stephanus,  315 
Stephen  IV.,  187 
Stevens,  T.,  144 
Strasburg,  259 
Stoss-Veit,  258-266 
Stubbes,  25 
Stubbs,  Charles,  249 
Stump  Work,  212 


Sturgis,  R.,  vii,  218,  307 
Suger,  Abbot,  20-23,  230,  318 
Suinthila,  23,  63 
Sumercote,  J.  de,  207 
“ Swineherd  of  Stowe,”  246 
Sylvester  II.,  151 
Sylvester,  Bp.,  314 
Symmachus,  279 
Symonds,  J.  A.,  139 
Syon  Cope,  201 
Syrlin,  J.,  266 

Tafi,  A.,  319-320 
Tanagra,  213 
Tancho,  146 
Tapestry,  154-178 
Tapicier,  G.  le,  168 
Tappistere,  J.  le,  168 
Tara  Brooch,  50,  83 
Tartary,  184 
Tassach,  53 

Tasso,  D.  and  G.,  303,  304 
Taugmar,  17 
Tegernsee,  357 
Temple  Church,  248 
Tenison  Psalter,  347,  352 
Texier,  Abbe,  xiii 
Textiles,  154 
Thebes,  181 
Thergunna,  196 
Theodolinda,  Queen,  221,  277 
Theodora,  315 

Theodoric,  221,  222,  327  % 

Theophilus  the  Monk,  5,  6,  7,  74, 
81,  85,  95,  99,  100,  110,  185, 
276,  337 

Theophilus,  Emperor,  14,  317 
Thillo,  58 

Thomson,  M.  G.,  165,  171 
Tintoretto,  323 
Titian,  323 

Toledo,  24,  25,  63,  125,  209,  270 

Tonquin,  J.,  114 

Topf,  J.,  129 

Torcello,  112,  319 

Tore!,  W.,  144,  249,  250 

Torpenhow,  31 

Torregiano,  254,  264 

Torriti,  J.,  321 

Touraine,  194 


378 


Index 


Tours,  17,  162,  173,  314 
“ Treatises  ” of  Cellini,  11 
Trittenham,  J.  of,  354 
Trophimes,  St.,  229 
Troupin,  J.,  265 
Troyes,  170 
Tucher,  A.,  268 
Tudela,  B.  of,  57,  181 
Tudor,  29 
Tuscany,  5 

Tutilon,  or  Tutilo,  229,  263 

Ubaldo,  St.,  204 
Ugolino  of  Siena,  33 
Ulm,  266 
Ulpha,  St.,  233 
Urbino,  306 

Utrecht  Psalter,  156,  353 

Valence,  A.  de,  144,  233 
Valencia,  146 
Valerio  Vincentino,  89 
Van  Eyck,  166 

Vasari,  G.,  34,  85,  89,  106,  116, 
191,  254,  302,  320,  322 
Vatican,  204 
Velasquez,  25,  167 
Venice,  84,  97,  136,  223,  312, 
318,  322,  323,  361 
Verocchio,  33,  34 
Verona,  88,  117,  222 
Villant,  P.  de,  208 
Vinci,  L.  da,  33 
Viollet-le-Duc,  52,  218 
Virgil,  228 

Vischer,  Peter,  141-143,  266 
Vischer,  Peter,  Jr.,  268 
Vitel,  314 
Vitruvius,  187 
Vivaria,  327 
Vopiscus,  F.,  166 


Wallois,  H.,  166 
Walpole,  H.,  148 
Walsingham,  A.  de,  248 
Walter  of  Colchester,  250 
Walter  of  Durham,  250 
Ware,  R.  de,  311 
Warwick,  144 
Waquier,  207 
Wechter,  F.  de,  166 
Welburne,  J.,  275 
Wells,  152,  244 
Wendover,  R.  de,  180 
Westminster,  66,  102,  117,  144, 
156,  165,  224,  233,  240,  241, 
243,  249-255,  268,  275,  311, 
331 

Westwood,  O.,  344 
Weyden,  van  der,  169 
Willaume,  166 

William  the  Conqueror,  155,  232 
Williams  of  Sens,  243 
Wilton,  Countess  of,  157,  172 
Winchester,  149,  165,  199,  272 
Windsor,  118,  131,  268 
Wire-drawing,  184 
Withaf,  King,  192 
Withers,  G.,  67 
Wolsey,  Card.,  175 
Wood-carving,  262-275 
Wood,  66 
Woolstrope,  29 
Worsted,  196 
Wyckham,  W.,  102 

Ypres,  166 
York,  181,  275,  285 

Zamborro,  M.,  322 
Zuccati,  The,  323-325 


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